Contents

Introduction

Chapter One: The Code of Longevity

Chapter Two: The Hedonic Treadmill

Chapter Three: Why Intermittent Fasting

Chapter Four: What We Know About Autophagy So Far

Chapter Five: Squaring the Curve

Chapter Six: HyperTORphyc Growth

Chapter Seven: Starting with Strength

Chapter Eight: Anabolic Autophagy

Chapter Nine: Protein Absorption and Anabolism

Chapter Ten: Food Fallacy

Chapter Eleven: The Case Against Sugar (and Fat)

Chapter Twelve: WTF Should I Eat

Chapter Thirteen: The Keto-Adaptation Process

Chapter Fourteen: The Anabolic/Catabolic Score of Food

Chapter Fifteen: Metabolic Autophagy Foods

Chapter Sixteen: Supplementation

Chapter Seventeen: Metabolic Autophagy in Practice

Chapter Eighteen: What Breaks a Fast

Chapter Nineteen: How to Fast for Days and Days

Chapter Twenty: When Not to Fast

Chapter Twenty-One: Circadian Rhythms and Autophagy

Chapter Twenty-Two: Sleep Optimization

Bonus Chapter: How to Drink Coffee Like a Strategic MotherF#%a

Introduction

“The reasonable man adapts himself to the world: the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man.” George Bernard Shaw

In 1878, Claude Bernard described how the first organisms developed the ability to balance their internal liquids and “carry the ocean with them” in the form of kidneys. Walter Cannon first coined the idea of homeostasis/equilibrium/inner balance/’wisdom of the body,’ to describe the necessity for maintaining equanimity within oneself to truly experience freedom and independence in the world. We all want to be able to control the world around us to avoid stress, in the form of discomfort, chaos, disorder, pain, and death.

Entropy is the tendency of complex systems, to progressively move towards chaos, disorder, death, and deterioration. It’s based on the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that the total entropy of an isolated system cannot decrease with time. Ideally, it can remain in a constant equilibrium or undergo reversible processes. Aging and death are the entropy of life – the slow waning away of the body.

The word ‘metabolism’ comes from Greek, meaning ‘change’, and it describes the collection of all the life-sustaining chemical reactions inside the organism. These actions enable us to produce energy, maintain our physical framework, and eliminate the waste we get exposed to. The metabolism has two sub-categories or sub-processes called anabolism and catabolism.

• Anabolism, meaning ‘upward’ in Greek, describes the synthesis of biological molecules to build up new physical matter in the body. These reactions require energy and nutrients. Being anabolic means you’re growing and building the framework that will decrease the accumulation of entropy.
• Catabolism, meaning ‘downward’ in Greek, describes the breaking down of biological molecules to release energy. This can apply to the breakdown of bodily tissue as well as the digestion of food that then gets assimilated into the body through anabolic processes. Being catabolic means you’re fragmenting larger structures into smaller ones and using it to produce new energy.

This balance is critical for health. You’d think that for health and longevity it would be better to stay anabolic, as to prevent any loss of bodily tissue. However, being catabolic has many beneficial and even essential qualities that make you live longer.

The process of autophagy entails your healthy cells devouring the old, worn-out, weak ones and converting them back into energy. It’s literally your body eating itself and using that to maintain homeostasis. There are many longevity-boosting benefits to this as illustrated in virtually all other species.

Chapter One: The Code of Longevity

The Hallmarks of Aging

• Genomic Instability – genetic damage and mutations throughout life
• Telomere Attrition – shortening of protective telomere caps on top of chromosomes that occurs during DNA repair
• Epigenetic Alterations – alterations in methylation patterns, post-translational modification of histones, and chromatin remodeling
• Loss of Proteostasis – dysfunctional protein folding, proteolysis, and proteotoxicity. 
• Deregulated Nutrient Sensing – inadequate growth hormone production, related to the Insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway
• Mitochondrial Dysfunction – old worn-out mitochondria begin to produce more reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress, which damages all other cells
• Cellular Senescence – the accumulation of dead cells and cancer proliferation
• Stem Cell Exhaustion – decline in regenerative potential of tissues and lack of swapping old cells with new cells
• Altered Intercellular Communication – miscommunication in endocrine, neuroendocrine, or neuronal systems that cause inflammation and other problems

Biological organisms develop certain adaptations based on the conditions they get exposed to in their environment. That’s why some animals have completely different metabolic profiles as well as physical traits than humans. They also live differently partly because of how they’ve adapted to their surroundings over the course of eons. That’s why most of these hallmarks of aging are controllable and epigenetic. You can influence your rate of aging and longevity by simply understanding these mechanisms and changing your lifestyle.

Mitochondrial Theory of Aging

Denham Harman (1956): Free Radical Theory of Aging (1970: describe mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)). The free radical theory of aging states that organisms die because of the accumulation of free radical damage on the cells over time.

The classical free radical theory of aging proposes that energy generation by the mitochondria damages mitochondrial macromolecules, including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which promotes aging. After a certain threshold, this produces too many reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause cell death and degradation. This happens when electrons get out of the electron transport chain and react with water to create ROS, such as superoxide radical. These radicals damage DNA and other proteins.

Age-related impairments in the mitochondrial respiratory chain decrease ATP synthesis, damage DNA, and make the cells more susceptible to oxidative stress. However, it’s been shown that mutations in mtDNA can result in premature aging without increasing ROS production by mutating the polymerase Pol-γ that’s responsible for mitochondrial DNA synthesis.

Excessive generation of ROS and mutations in mtDNA are both central to the mitochondrial theory of aging. However, it’s suggested that ROS aren’t the primary or initial cause of it.

Reactive Oxygen Species and Aging

Mutant mtDNA increases with age, especially in tissues with higher energy demands like the heart, brain, liver, kidneys, etc.

Taking a lot of antioxidants and lowering oxidative stress with supplements have failed to be effective in fighting disease and in fact may promote the chances of getting sick. Treatment with high doses of anti-oxidants like beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E may actually increase mortality. Consuming more fruit and vegetables doesn’t seem to have a significant effect on reducing cancer risk. Increasing your body’s own endogenous antioxidant levels may be a better option for disease prevention.

Sublethal mitochondrial stress with a small increase in ROS may cause a lot of the beneficial effects found in caloric restriction, intermittent fasting, exercise, and dietary phytonutrients.

• If you experience no stress and zero exposure to free radicals, then your body is by default weaker because of having no fighting reference from the past.
• If you experience too much stress and excessive accumulation of ROS, then you promote disease and sickness because of not having enough time to recover.
• If you experience just the right dose of stress, then you’ll be able to deal with it, recover from the shock, and thus augment your cells against future stressors.
• If you block all mitochondrial stress and eliminate free radicals, then your body won’t have the time nor the means to promote mitohormesis. That’s why antioxidants all the time won’t have a positive effect.

Here are some of the factors that have been shown to produce oxidative stress and induce mitochondrial aging:

• Insulin and high glucose environments generate free radicals and promote oxidative stress. The insulin signaling pathway is one of the main mechanisms of accelerated aging. However, this is dose specific and some is beneficial for ROS production.
• Chronic stress accelerates aging and disease. Over-production of free radicals due to excessive stress hormones decreases mitochondrial functioning and makes you more prone to disease because of a weakened immune system, high insulin, and damage to cells.
• Sleep deprivation and circadian rhythm disruption promotes all disease. If your body’s biological clocks are misaligned with its circadian rhythms, then you’ll cause more cellular stress and predispose yourself to all types of dysfunctions.
• Avoid environmental toxins and pollution. Polluted air, water, heavy metal exposure, mercury in food, pesticides, glyphosate, GMO crops, toxic personal care products, house cleaning chemicals – all of them will create more reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. The amount of these stressors is beyond our body’s natural ability to cope with them; thus, they don’t have a beneficial effect in the long run.
• Inflammation is correlated with most diseases, as it directly decreases the body’s immune system function. Processing food and over-cooking it increases the number of free radicals and carcinogens in it.

Longevity Pathways in Humans

The Growth Hormone/Insulin and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Signaling Pathway, which regulates cell replication, nutrient partitioning, and storage:

Insulin is the main storage hormone that directs nutrient partitioning and glycogen replenishment. It basically helps to unlock the cells so they could store glucose into liver and muscle glycogen.

Insulin-Like Growth Factor (IGF-1) or somatomedin C is an IGF- 1 encoded human gene. It’s also been referred to as the ‘sulfation factor’. IGF-1’s role is to promote tissue growth and development.

• The effects of IGF-1 are mediated through the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R), which is similar to the receptor of the storage hormone insulin.
• IGF-1 gets produced in the liver by the stimulation of Human Growth Hormone (HGH). IGF binding protein (IGFBP) is a binding protein that carries IGF-1 around the body and it’s regulated by insulin.

Caloric Restriction and Longevity:

Caloric restriction and energy deprivation lower mTOR signaling, which in turn upregulate other pathways of energy homeostasis, such as AMPK and autophagy.

The life-extension benefits of caloric restriction and fasting are mostly induced by autophagy and increased sirtuin activity that promote cellular turnover and recycling of old cells.

The life cycles of mitochondria are characterized by fission and fusion events:

• Fusion states happen when several mitochondria mix and organize themselves into a network. They basically merge together into a single much larger mitochondrion.
• Fission states happen when the fused mitochondria get split into 2 out of which the one with a higher membrane potential will return to the fission-fusion-cycle and the one with a more depolarized membrane will stay solitary until its membrane potential recovers. If its membrane potential remains depolarized it’ll lose its ability to fuse and eventually will be eliminated by mitophagy.

Changes in nutrient and energy availability can make the mitochondria stay in either one of these states for longer:

• Post-Fusion State is called Elongation, which is characteristic to states of energy efficiency, such as starvation, acute stress, caloric restriction, and biological aging (senescence).
• Post-Fission State is called Fragmentation, which shortens the mitochondria and keeps them separate. This is typical to bioenergetic inefficiency that’s caused by high energy supply and extended exposure to excess nutrients.

Basically, caloric restriction promotes energy efficiency because the organism is required to sustain itself with fewer calories. Having access to an abundance of energy, however, leads to inefficient mitochondrial function because every single mitochondrion must expend less effort to carry its weight. That can lead to the accumulation of dysfunctional components.

Caloric restriction shows increased lifespan of brain neurons in both humans and monkeys. One human study on 3 weeks of alternate day fasting discovered an increase in SIRT1, which is associated with longevity. It’s suggested that caloric restriction induces cellular respiration, which increases NAD+ and reduces NADH levels. NADH inhibits SIRT2 and SIRT1.

SIRT1 has been shown to also activate PGC-1α, which triggers the growth of new mitochondria. SIRT3, SIRT4, and SIRT5 improve mitochondrial function as well.

When your body faces a shortage of energy, then you’re going to promote the fusion of mitochondria. This lowers your energetic demands because the organelles in your cells are better connected. It’ll also make you recycle old worn-out cell components and convert them back into energy through the process of autophagy.

Energy restriction also upregulates the other genes that increase energy efficiency by improving insulin sensitivity and fat oxidation. During states of fasting or depletion of exogenous calories, your mitochondria rev up their functioning and boost endogenous energy production from internal sources.

Ketosis is another vital component to the survival of the mitochondria as it allows them to become more energy efficient. This shift of starting to burn ketones preserves muscle tissue, gives adequate energy to the brain, and keeps you satiated by downregulating some of the hunger signaling.

The mitochondrial fission-fusion cycles are also dependent on autophagy modulating pathways such as AMPK and mTOR:

• mTOR or mammalian target of rapamycin is responsible for cell growth, protein synthesis, and anabolism. 
• AMPK or AMP-activated protein kinase is a fuel sensor that is involved in balancing energy deprived states.
• Autophagy is the process of self-eating and cellular turnover in which the body recycles its old worn-out components back into energy.

mTOR inhibits autophagy because it makes your body grow, which requires expending energy and upregulating the metabolism, whereas AMPK supports autophagy due to the energy-deprived state.

Nutrient starvation allows unneeded proteins to be broken down and recycled into amino acids that are essential for survival. That keeps the organism alive longer because of increased mitochondrial efficiency. Therefore, the key to longevity and increased lifespan still gets traced back to decreased energy intake and improved energy usage within the body itself.

The FOXO/Sirtuin Pathway, which includes proteins and transcription factors responsible for energy homeostasis. They manage homeostasis under harsh conditions and stress:

Sirtuins are a family of proteins that act as metabolic sensors. They deacetylase the coenzyme NAD+ into free nicotinamide. Basically, they break down acetyl from proteins to maintain their functioning for longer. The ratio of NAD+ to NADH determine the nutritional status of the cell, and sirtuins are there to respond.

NAD+ is an essential currency for energy metabolism and DNA repair. Sirtuins are proteins that evolved to respond to the availability of NAD+ in the body.

Cellular deterioration and senescence are thought to be caused mostly by the accumulation of unrepairable DNA damage. SIRT1 plays an important role in activating DNA repair proteins. It’s specifically involved with repairing the double helix of DNA. SIRT1 can also induce cellular autophagy by directly deacetylating AuTophaGy (ATG) proteins such as Atg5, Atg7, and Atg8. This then promotes mitophagy or mitochondrial autophagy and helps to eliminate old worn-out cells.

How to increase sirtuins for longevity:

• Glucose restriction extends the lifespan of human fibroblasts because of increased NAD+ and sirtuin activity. Inhibiting insulin shuttles SIRT1 out of the cell’s nucleus into the cytoplasm.
• Caloric restriction and fasting increase SIRT3 and deacetylate many mitochondrial proteins.
• Activating AMPK elevates NAD+ levels, leading to increased SIRT1 activity. AMPK is the fuel sensor that mobilizes the body’s energy stores such as fat and it promotes autophagy as well.
• Ketosis and ketone bodies like beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) are associated with increased sirtuin activity.
• Exercise has anti-inflammatory effects and it increases SIRT1.
• Cyclic-AMP (cAMP) pathway activates SIRT1 very rapidly to promote fatty acid oxidation independent of NAD+. cAMP is linked with AMPK which gets activated under high energy demands while being energy deprived.
• Heat exposure and saunas increase NAD+ levels which promote SIRT1 as well. Sweating, cardio, yoga, or infrared saunas will probably have a similar effect on activating heat shock proteins.
• Chronic oxidative stress and DNA damage deplete NAD+ levels and decrease sirtuin activity. This will then disrupt DNA repair and impair mitochondrial functioning. That’s why you want to keep stressors acute and followed by recovery.
• Melatonin can activate sirtuins and has anti-aging effects.
• Sirtuins also affect the circadian clocks so keeping a consistent circadian rhythm is incredibly important for longevity. NAD+ is under circadian control and when you’re misaligned, you’ll have less energy and lower SIRT1 and SIRT3 activity. Circadian rhythm mismatches are linked to many metabolic disorders, glucose intolerance, and brain degeneration.

Hormesis and General Stress Adaptation Mediated by FOXO Proteins and Mitochondrial Functioning:

This phenomenon makes the organism more resilient against environmental stressors.

Exposure to stress whether that be the cold, caloric deprivation, or the heat makes the organism live longer because of forcing hormetic adaptation. 

Increased insulin/IGF-1 signaling mutations prevent the localization of DAF-16 by heat shock, which raises the possibility that the increased lifespan due to stress adaptation occurs because of lower insulin.

Increase FOXO Factors for Longevity:

‘FOX’ stands for ‘Forkhead box’ and it represents a class of proteins and transcript factors that have many functions in the human body. FOXO proteins are transcript factors that regulate longevity through the insulin and insulin-like growth factor signaling.

Invertebrates have a single FOXO gene, whereas mammals have four: FOXO1, FOXO3, FOXO4, and FOXO6. In mammals, FOXO proteins regulate stress resistance, cellular turnover, apoptosis, glucose and lipid metabolism, and inflammation.

FOX represents the class of proteins, the letter ’O’ is the subclass, and the number represents the member of that group. There are over 100 subclasses of FOX proteins in humans, such as FOXA, FOXR, FOXE, etc. and they have many functions. FOX proteins with the class ’O’ are regulated by the insulin/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Theoretically, upregulated FOXO pathway activities increase lifespan in many species because of promoting stress adaptation in harsh environments. The FOXO pathway is an evolutionarily viable mechanism for adapting to low levels of insulin and energy deprivation.

Anabolic mechanisms such as insulin, mTOR, and IGF-1 tell the body to grow and replicate but this may come at the expense of longevity and accelerated aging. Which is why you’d want to know how to balance it with the catabolic processes of autophagy, AMPK, and FOXO factors.

SIRT1 increases FOXO DNA binding by deacetylating FOXO in response to oxidative stress. FOXO proteins get increased in response to cellular stress and increased energy depletion.

• Caloric restriction increases sirtuins, as well as FOXO factors.
• Fasting for 48 hours elevates FOXO1,3, and 4 by 1.5-fold and refeeding drops it back to baseline. FOXO1 is also critical for adapting to fasting by activating. gluconeogenesis in the liver. This makes the liver produce its endogenous glucose whether from amino acids or fatty acids.
• Even just acute exercise increases FOXO1 phosphorylation, improves insulin sensitivity and promotes mitochondrial biogenesis. However, chronic exercise may decrease this exercise-induced FOXO expression.
• In response to heat stress, Drosophila dFOXO contributes to increased heat shock protein levels, which will protect DNA damage and maintains cellular resistance. Taking a sauna, exercising and sweating can promote FOXO activation.
• Exposure to cold stress before heat stress lowers FOXO translocation in fruit flies but it doesn’t compromise longevity and resistance to the heat. Cold exposure actually can boost longevity and lifespan.
• FOXO3a is activated in response to hypoxic stress and inhibits apoptosis.

The general trend for increasing FOXO follows the same pattern as the other longevity pathways such as AMPK and Sirtuins. Energy deprivation and adaptation to stress make the organism more resilient and longer lived. It forces the body to continue producing energy and survive in situations of low nutrients, thus becoming really efficient at its own metabolic processes. Being chronically taxed out and under harsh conditions will inevitably lead to an accelerated deterioration just because of the accumulated damage. The cells themselves react to this by looking at the functioning of telomeres.

Telomeres and Longevity:

The sequence of telomeres is TTAGGG, which gets replicated over 2500 times in humans. In order to keep the organism alive, chromosomes are continuously replicating themselves and repairing DNA. Every bout of chromosome duplication causes a shortening in telomeres because the enzymes involved in duplicating DNA can’t continue their duplication all the way to the end of a chromosome. So, telomeres are vital protective caps that are supposed to protect the genes from damage during this process.

Telomere shortening prevents cells from replicating themselves by limiting the number of cell divisions. Shortened telomeres also weaken the immune system, increasing the risk of cancer.

On average, human telomeres shorten from about 11 kilobases as a newborn to less than 4 kilobases in old age.

Telomere length can be replenished by telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT). TERT is a subunit of Telomerase which adds TTAGGG sequences to the ends of chromosomes.

• Telomerase activity can prevent the shortening of telomeres that occurs with aging. Telomerase is responsible for the self-renewal properties of stem cells by elongating the telomeres of stem cells, which prevent telomere shortening and increase the lifespan of stem cells.
• Telomerase is more active in rapidly dividing cells such as embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells and they’re quite low in neuronal, skin, pancreas, adrenal, cortex, kidney and mesenchymal stem cells.
• Telomerase activity determines how many times a cell can divide before it dies off completely. It takes about 30-50 cycles of replication until the cell becomes senescent and dead.

Over-expression of TERT can promote cancer and tumor formation. Telomerase activity can immortalize cancer cells and about 90% of cancers are characterized by increased telomere activity.

Telomeres are highly susceptible to oxidative stress and stress-mediated DNA damage is a huge contributing factor to telomere shortening. Too much stress shortens telomeres but it also damages the mitochondria. That’s why a healthy lifestyle should include active stress management. Here’s how to increase telomere length and prevent telomere shortening:

• Meditation helps to maintain telomere length and protect them from getting damaged. It increases telomere activity and reduces oxidative stress. Meditating lowers psychological as well as physiological stress and boosts the immune system.
• Intermittent fasting can promote telomere activity and function through several mechanisms. It lowers oxidative stress, removes senescent cells through autophagy, and boosts stem cell production.
• Resistance training and muscle building slow down aging. As you age you decrease the number of satellite cells that are precursors to skeletal muscle cells and you lose muscle mass. Shortening of satellite cell telomeres prevents satellite cell replication and contributes to age-related sarcopenia.

The mTOR/AMPK Pathway governs homeostasis between anabolism and catabolism. 

Hormesis and Longevity

Hormesis is a biphasic response to a toxin or a stressor. (1) The initial contact causes injury to the body. (2) The following reaction leads to adaptation, leaving the body in a better condition than it was before. Mark Mattson (2012): cells respond to bioenergetic stressors by increasing DNA repair proteins, antioxidant enzymes and the production of neurotrophic factors (such as BDNF). It’s also believed that this is the reason eating vegetables, tea or coffee can improve brain health.

• Plants contain ‘noxious’ chemicals that are supposed to protect them from being eaten by insects and other organisms.
• We’ve developed counter-adaptations in the form of hormesis and we trigger a beneficial response when eating these foods.

Examples of Hormesis:

• Physical exercise. It triggers adaptations that increase mitochondrial density and biogenesis through mitochondrial hormesis.
• Alcohol is another hypothetical form of hormesis as it’s believed to prevent heart disease and stroke. However, there’s evidence to show that these benefits are exaggerated.
• Red wine contains resveratrol, which is one of those protective plant compounds and it’s greatly associated with anti-aging effects (1-2 glasses a week). Still a neurotoxin though. Benefits are exaggerated and the amount you would need to drink to obtain these benefits would cause way more harm.
• Exposure to Sunlight at low or moderate doses has a lot of health benefits. It’s one of the most effective ways of synthesizing Vitamin D in the body but it also supports most metabolic processes.
• Cold Exposure triggers AMPK, which causes your mitochondria to grow and improve their efficiency. It’s also a positive adaptation to lower temperatures with many other health benefits, such as reduced inflammation, stronger immune system, and greater tolerance to pain.
• Heat Exposure activates these so-called ‘heat shock proteins’, which allow the cells to resist the damaging effect of heat. High temperatures can also stimulate the lymphatic system, which works like an inner pump for moving liquids and toxins in the body.
• Caloric Restriction and Intermittent Fasting cause mild oxidative stress that trigger protective sirtuin proteins. Short-term fasting and starvation can also fight cancer and make cancer patients more resilient against chemotherapy.
• Mental Stress is another example of hormesis where you’re forced to flex your neural muscles. Learning new things, gaining skills, being in unpredictable high-stress situations, novel environments and challenges all trigger neuroplasticity and neurogenesis that make you grow new brain cells and create new synaptic connections.

The Price of Longevity:

• Guppies who live in nature grow and reproduce faster because of predatory pressures than guppies without natural predators. When predators are removed, these same guppies will still go and have more offspring and live longer.
• Fruit fly mutants that live longer have even more progeny than normal
• Removing germline precursors in C. Elegans extends their lifespan. This is not due to sterility but because of hormonal signaling of the DAF-16/FOXO pathway that localizes DAF-16 in the adipose tissue.
• Humans can also suffer hormonal downregulation and low thyroid functioning with excessive caloric restriction and chronic stress.

There’s also the idea that stimulating growth with mTOR and IGF-1 will accelerate aging because of the growth mechanisms. However, there are as many reasons to think that inadequate levels of these pathways are as detrimental for longevity.

• mTOR helps to build muscle and prevents muscle wasting, which is increasingly more important as you get older.
• IGF-1 and mTOR increase bone density and joint strength, especially in cartilage and tendons.
• Both high and low levels of IGF-1 are associated with increased mortality in a U-shape curve trend.
• IGF-1 fights autoimmune disorders by increasing T-cells and supports proper growth.
• IGF-1 improves blood sugar regulation. Lower IGF-1 is associated with metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance. This may be partly due to low insulin sensitivity that can be improved by building more muscle and stimulating mTOR.

Chapter Two: The Hedonic Treadmill

Paradoxically, the richer the country the more health problems it tends to face. Diseases of Civilization, are more predominant amongst upper-middle to high-income populations. The problem is that in the rise of civilization’s comfort and abundance, we’re teaching ourselves to lose some of the positive qualities of human nature. Too many suffer from poor self-control, bad dietary habits, horrible biomarkers, and the general hedonic attitude towards life.

Hedonic Adaptation

The change in our environment from scarcity to abundance has happened too quickly. We may live in the modern world, but our body thinks it’s still in the ancestral landscape. Because of this “evolutionary time-lag”, our brain is always trying to motivate us to consume the most evolutionarily valuable nutrients – salt, sugar, and fat. Foods with a combination of carbohydrates and fats have the highest caloric density and enable our body to store energy for the dark times to come.

In nature, fat is generally available in winter when we had to eat animals to survive, while sugar and starch were available in summer and autumn. There was no time when we had the combination of fat + carbs available to us in a natural whole food, but this is the signature of junk food that drives excessive eating. The reason why some people can’t get enough enjoyment from healthy food is that their bliss point is too high. Refined carbohydrates, sweets, pastries and pizzas have overstimulated their taste buds.

Leptin resistance is caused mostly by emotional binge eating. Usually, it goes hand in hand with insulin resistance, as it’s created by the consumption of simple carbohydrates and sugar with a lot of fat at the same time. These combinations of foods affect the mental processes and are the most common cause of obesity and diabetes. Living organisms are hard-wired towards preserving energy to guarantee survival and avoid pain, which gets regulated by the homeostatic balance of the body. Core temperature, blood pressure, daily caloric expenditure, and hormetic conditioning are all linked to this.

Hedonic adaptation is about you getting comfortable with a particular stimulus and it becomes your default state. You reach a new homeostasis.

Obesity and metabolic diseases are primarily the outcomes of physiological ailments in the body as well as psychological hedonic adaptation to the dopamine rush of highly stimulating foods that make the person follow certain bad lifestyle practices.

The key to overcoming any addiction is to detach yourself from the thing that you’re addicted to – you have to reduce your exposure to the stimulus. 

• Intermittent Fasting resets your taste buds and makes healthy food taste amazing. Junk food will become too stimulating.
• Avoiding caffeine for a certain period of time will lower your tolerance to it. You’ll get more energy from less coffee.
• Not consuming social media and entertainment for a while will give your brain a break from being constantly stimulated and triggered. This will help you to become more mindful and focused in life.
• Sleeping on the floor or outside every once in a while, reminds you how fortunate you really are for having even just a roof over your head. It can also condition you to hold a better posture.

The key is to not make the mistake of scaling up our homeostasis and never coming down from it. We should experience the highs and the lows so that we could appreciate the things we already have. Buy yourself nice things, but get accustomed to being happy without them.

Seneca:

“Set aside a certain number of days, during which you shall be content with the scantiest and cheapest fare, with coarse and rough dress, saying to yourself the while: Is this the condition that I feared?”

Lao Tzu:

“Deal with the big while it is still small.”

Why Intermittent Fasting?

The eating patterns of our hunter-gatherer ancestors were highly unpredictable. They were always in between fasting and feasting. They did both intermittently. This cycle wasn’t deliberate but created by the scarcity of food in their environment.

The two governing states of metabolism are fed and fasted – anabolism and catabolism. The former is when we’re using the macronutrients eaten, that have been digested and are now circulating the bloodstream. The latter happens when all that fuel has run out and our gas tank is empty, so to say. It happens after several hours (7-8) of not eating.

How Does the Body Produce Energy While Fasting?

The body’s default fuel source is glucose, which exogenously (externally) comes in the form of sugar and carbohydrates and is stored endogenously (internally) as glycogen. The liver can deposit 100-150 grams of glycogen and muscles about 300-500 grams. They’re used for back-up. Liver glycogen stores will be depleted already within the first 18 to 24 hours of not eating – almost overnight. This decreases blood sugar and insulin levels significantly, as there are no exogenous nutrients to be found.

Glucagon gets released when the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream gets too low. The liver then starts to convert stored glycogen into glucose.

Fasting and Ketosis

As fasting continues, the liver starts to produce ketone bodies which are derived from our own fat cells. Lipolysis (breakdown of stored triglycerides in the adipose tissue) and ketogenesis increase significantly due to fatty acid mobilization and oxidation. Ketosis can occur after 2-3 days of fasting. Triglycerides (molecules of stored body fat) are broken down into glycerol, which is used for gluconeogenesis (creation of new glucose) and three fatty acid chains. Fatty acids can be used for energy by most of the tissue in the body, but not the brain. They need to be converted into ketone bodies first.

Ketosis is a metabolic state in which fat is the primary fuel source, instead of glucose, and can be achieved either through fasting or by following a ketogenic diet. Fasting induces ketosis rapidly and puts the body into its more efficient metabolic state. The more keto-adapted you become the more ketones you’ll successfully utilize. At first, the brain and muscles are quite glucose dependent. But eventually, they start to prefer fat for fuel. After several days of fasting, approximately 75% of the energy used by the brain is provided by ketones. Protein catabolism decreases significantly, as fat stores are mobilized and the use of ketones increases. Muscle glycogen gets used even less and the majority of our energy demands will be derived from the adipose tissue.

The Krebs cycle is a sequence of reactions taking place in our mitochondria that generate energy during aerobic respiration. When glucose enters this metabolic furnace it goes through glycolysis, which creates the molecule pyruvate. In the case of fatty acids, the outcome is a ketone body called acetoacetate, which then gets converted further into beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetone.

The difference between pyruvate and ketone bodies is that the latter can create 25% more energy. On top of that, the by-products of glycolysis are advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which promote inflammation and oxidative stress, by binding a protein or lipid molecule with sugar. They speed up aging and can cause diabetes.

Fasting VS Caloric Restriction VS Starvation

Starvation is a severe deficiency in energy intake. The body doesn’t have access to essential nutrients and is slowly wasting away by cannibalizing its vital organs. It’s a gradual process of degradation that’s often characterized by the skinny-fat look or the bloated stomach called kwashiorkor, which is caused by insufficient protein even in the presence of sufficient caloric intake.

Caloric Restriction reduces calorie intake without causing malnutrition or starvation. You’re simply consuming fewer calories needed to maintain your body’s current energy demands. This will make you burn your stored fat and also lowers the body’s overall metabolic rate, down-regulated reproductive hormones, thyroid functioning and promotes gluconeogenesis. The difference between caloric restriction and starvation is that when calorically restricted, your body still gets access to the energy it needs to maintain its daily energy demands. It’s just that those energy demands have adapted to be lower and more efficient in terms of energy gained per calorie.

Fasting is a state of metabolic suspension in which you’re not consuming any calories. Despite that, your body is still nourished and gets the energy it needs. This happens by shifting into ketosis, in which you’ll be burning your body fat almost exclusively.

To prevent malnutrition and starvation, while restricting calories, you want to establish ketosis and autophagy as soon as possible. Even consuming small amounts of food will put you into a fed state. It doesn’t matter whether you eat 200 calories or 1000, you’ll still be shifted out of a fasted state.

Chapter Three: Why Intermittent Fasting

Fasting and the Mitochondria

Time-controlled fasting prevents mitochondrial aging and deterioration. It can also promote the longevity of mitochondria by eliminating the production of reactive oxygen species and free radicals by dysfunctional organelles.

Mitochondrial biogenesis is the process of building new mitochondria through the activities of certain metabolic regulators such as PGC-1α and AMPK. AMPK produces new mitochondria and controls mitophagy as well. The key to growing new mitochondria is to signal the body to produce energy under energy depletion and in stressful environments. This causes cellular crises that need to be compensated for by building new power plants.

• Fasting increases AMPK which promotes fatty acid oxidation which produces ketone bodies. The mitochondria run a lot better on ketone bodies because they can get into the mitochondria faster via the electron transport chain and they’ll yield more ATP than glucose.
• Fasting increases FOXO proteins, which regulate longevity through the insulin/IGF-1 pathway and mitohormesis. FOXO1 and FOXO3 promote mitophagy.
• Fasting increases sirtuins. Sirtuins regulate fat and glucose metabolism in response to physiological changes in energy levels, thus they’re crucial determinants of energy homeostasis and health span of the cell. SIRT1 regulates mitochondrial biogenesis and PGC-1α. Suppressing SIRT2 restricts fatty acid metabolism, reduces mitochondrial activity, and promotes obesity. SIRT3 is the major mitochondrial deacetylase and it protects against oxidative stress through its anti-oxidant properties.

Fasting and Mitochondrial Density

Mitochondrial density refers to the cells’ ability to produce more energy from fewer resources and become more efficient at it.

Fasting increases NAD+ levels, which is an enzyme that helps with energy production and promotes longevity.

• NAD+ supports mitochondrial functioning during youth and restore it in later life.
• NAD+ protects the cells against oxidative stress with the help of sirtuins. NAD+ activates sirtuins which then help to grow blood vessels and muscle.
• NAD+ replenishment improves lifespan and health span through mitophagy and DNA repair. NAD+ supplementation can promote DNA repair in mice.

Burning fatty acids and ketones causes less damage to the mitochondria as well. Glycolysis, which is the process by which mitochondria burn glucose, causes more oxidative stress and the creation of free radicals, which in turn will speed up aging.

Reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress activate FOXO pathway to adapt to the stress. Fasting causes mild stress that makes the body adapt to it through hormesis. Inactivity of FOXO factors accelerates atherosclerosis and compromises stem cell proliferation.

Fasting and the Brain

• Fasting boosts brain power by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which helps to grow new brain cells and synapses. It also promotes serotonin, which regulates synaptic plasticity with BDNF.
• Fasting can boost BDNF by 50-400%. Even 16:8 style intermittent fasting promotes neuroplasticity and stimulates the production of new brain cells. BDNF also has anti-depressant benefits and it protects against stroke.
• Fasting protects the brain against neurodegeneration. During autophagy, fasting helps to clear out beta-amyloid plaques and lowers oxidative stress on neuronal tissues. Fasting and the ketogenic diet are commonly used to treat epilepsy.
• Fasting boosts growth hormone that provides neuroprotection and regeneration. Growth hormone not only protects against muscle catabolism but also prevents brain cells from dying.
• Fasting gives the brain ketones which lower inflammation and maintain stable energy levels. The ketogenic diet has BDNF increasing properties.
• Fasting increases mitochondrial biogenesis, which helps to produce more energy. There’s a lot of mitochondria in the brain and other vital organs.
• Fasting helps to lose weight, which can improve brain function. Studies link a higher BMI with decreased blood flow to regions in the brain that are associated with attention span, reasoning, and higher executive functioning.

The brain can use about 120 grams of glucose a day and if glucose levels fall below 40mg/dl its functioning begins to suffer. However, during fasting, the brain can get more than enough energy from other sources:

• Ketone bodies are derived from fatty acid metabolism and after ketoadaptation, they can cover 50-75% of the brain’s energy demands.
• Astrocytes in the brain and spinal cord can produce ketones that can be for neuronal metabolism and they have neuroprotective properties.
• Fatty acids from your body fat can also be converted into glucose through a process called gluconeogenesis which breaks fat molecules into 3 fatty acid chains and glycerol. Glycerol can contribute up to 21.6% of daily glucose production.
• Lactate can also give the brain energy during intense exercise. The brain prefers lactate over glucose when both are available. Lactate gets produced during anaerobic metabolism.
• Recent research in vitro has shown that fuel alternatives to glucose improve neuronal efficiency and oxidative metabolism.

Alzheimer’s disease is now being referred to as type-3 diabetes, as it’s caused by an energy crisis in the brain. Insulin resistance in the brain contributes to the development of cognitive decline and people with type-2 diabetes have an increased risk of Alzheimer’s of 50-65% and higher. Fortunately, fasting may help your brain with cognitive decline as well.

• Autophagy clears out the beta-amyloid plaques that begin to accumulate with cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s progression. Alzheimer’s is also linked to obesity and insulin resistance.
• β-hydroxybutyrate, actually blocks part of the immune system that regulates inflammatory diseases like arthritis and Alzheimer’s.
• Ketone bodies also raise BDNF and lower oxidative stress. Ketones can also reduce too much excitement in the brain caused by excess glutamate and not enough GABA.

If a person experiences hypoglycemia and gets the symptoms of such, then their brain is simply unable to use the other fuel alternatives. Ergo, when the body is keto-adapted enough, it’s going to prevent any energy crises in the first place.

Fasting and the Immune System

Fasts that last for 48-120 hours reduce pro-growth signaling and enhance cellular resistance to toxins. They also trigger stem cells, which help to reinvigorate old cells and promote their youthfulness.

Valter Longo:

• When you starve, the system tries to save energy, and one of the things it can do to save energy is to recycle a lot of the immune cells that are not needed, especially those that may be damaged.
• We noticed in both our human work and animal work that the white blood cell count goes down with prolonged fasting. Then when you re-feed, the blood cells come back.

Longo found that in order for the stem cells to be turned on, an enzyme called cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) needs to be shut down. Prolonged fasting has also been shown to lower blood sugar, insulin levels, and other hormones such as mTOR and IGF-1, which are all growth factors that prevent the body from healing itself using its internal resources.

Fasting can weaken your immune system only if it becomes an overbearing stressor on your body. It’s like any other physiological stressor your immune system has to deal with. If you’re fasting for five days, having mad CrossFit workouts, not sleeping enough, controlling three screaming kids in the mini-van, and being stressed out, then, of course, you’re more prone to getting sick.

Fasting Mimicking Diet and the Immune System

Fasting Mimicking Diet (FMD):

• You eat about 500-1000 calories every day
• Your daily macros are low protein, moderate carb, moderate fat
• You eat things like a nutbar, a bowl of soup, and some crackers with a few olives or something
• Day One you eat about 1000 calories – 10% protein, 55% fat, and 35% carbs
• Day 2-5 you eat about 500-700 calories – 10% protein, 45% fat, 45% carbs
• Day 6 you transition back to a normal caloric intake with complex carbs, vegetables, and minimal meat, fish, and cheese

Studies on the fasting mimicking diet have shown that it lowers cholesterol, C-reactive protein, blood glucose, IGF-1, and blood pressure. However, it’s possible these effects simply came from the caloric restriction.

Fasting and Gut Health

Dietary restriction has been shown to prevent gut pathologies and extend lifespan in fruit flies:

• Short-term intermittent fasting improves gut health and extends lifespan in fruit flies independent of the TOR pathway.
• Intermittent fasting promotes clearance of pathogens and infectious bacteria and helps to heal the gut in mice infected with salmonella.
• Fasting protects the gut against the negative effects of stress, such as inflammation. Fasting activates cAMP, which further activates genes that promote intestinal lining integrity and strength. The cognitive benefits of fasting on the brain will also improve your mood and improve stress resiliency which protects against leaky gut again.
• Intermittent fasting promotes white adipose tissue browning and reduces obesity by shaping the gut microbiome. The gut microbiota influences adipose tissue browning and insulin sensitivity by signaling the browning of white fat into brown fat.
• Caloric restriction and weight loss increase the number of beneficial bacteria in the gut called Bacteroidetes. Obese people have less of these bacteria than lean people. Caloric restriction enriches phylotypes in the gut that are positively correlated with increased lifespan.

Fasting and time restricted feeding heal the gut by giving your intestines rest from breaking down food. Digestion requires about 25% of the calories from each meal. Being in a fasted state promotes anti-inflammatory cytokines and cellular autophagy that instigate healing.

Fasting also increases the activity of the migrating motor complex (MMC), which is a mechanism that controls stomach contractions in a cyclical manner over 2-hour periods. The MMC cleans out the GI tract and helps to eliminate undigested food particles. It’s regulated by feeding/fasting hormones such as ghrelin, serotonin, cortisol, and somatostatin. Eating inhibits MMC and not eating increases it.

However, fasting may cause some gut issues if done wrong:

• Fasting and eating at night may lower your sleep quality. Some species of bacteria like Enterobacter aerogenes are sensitive to melatonin (the sleep hormone), which influence circadian rhythms. A disruption in circadian rhythms can disrupt the microbiome and thus negatively affect metabolic health. That’s why it’s important to not overeat at night.
• Prolonged restrictive diets may cause a lack of microbial diversity. The gut microbiome can respond to changes in diet very fast and thus restructure the microbiome according to that. Short-term consumption of either fully animal or plant-based diets alter the gut microbial status, which can cause trade-offs in carbohydrate or protein metabolism.
• Fasting decreases the size of some digestion organs like the small intestine and liver, which can lower the capacity to consume food. That’s why you may find it more difficult to eat as much as you did before when breaking your fast. However, these organs will regrow themselves quite rapidly and they’ll become more functional afterward.

Fasting promotes the diversity and dynamics of the microbiome, which is determined by feeding and fasting cycles of the host. At the same time, it will still starve off some of the pathogens, viruses, and bad bacteria.

The Microbe-Gut-Brain (MGB) Axis is this network of biochemical signaling between the gastrointestinal tract (GI) and the central nervous system (CNS). It includes the enteric nervous system (ENS), the endocrine system, the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA), the autonomic nervous system, the vagus nerve, the endocrine system, and the gut microbiome.

Your immune cells, muscle cells, cells of the gastrointestinal tract are all mediators of the neuro-immuno-endocrine system that are influenced by both the brain and the gut microbiome. In fact, it’s been thought that the microbiome plays a much more influential role in the state of your being than the brain.

Fasting and Fat Loss

Intermittent fasting doesn’t slow down the metabolism but actually increases it by 3.6% after the first 48 hours. 4 days in, resting energy expenditure increases up to 14%. This is probably caused by increased adrenaline so that we would have more energy to go out into the savannah and find some food.

There’s no reason to be concerned about malnutrition during fasting because our fat stores can deposit almost an infinite number of calories. The main issue is rather micronutrient deficiencies. Potassium levels may drop slightly, but even 2 months of fasting won’t decrease it below a safe margin. Magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus remain stable because 99% of them are stored in our bones.

Fasting and Growth Hormone

After 20-24 hours of fasting, GH increases by 1300-2000%. It not only promotes tissue repair, body composition, and metabolism but also preserves youthfulness.

What goes hand in hand with HGH is insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1). It’s one of the major growth factors in mammals which together with insulin is associated with accelerated aging and cancer. Just 5 days of fasting can decrease IGF-1 by 60% and a 5-fold increase in one of its principal IGF-1-inhibiting proteins: IGFBP1.

Potential Side Effects

Headaches, dizziness, lightheadedness, fatigue, low blood pressure and abnormal heart rhythms are all short-term. Some people may experience impaired motor control or forgetfulness. But these are all symptoms of withdrawal from glucose dependence, not fasting.

Fasting may cause some flare-ups of certain medical conditions, such as gout, gallstones or other diseases. This is yet again not because of fasting directly but because of the overall high amounts of toxins in the body. The adipose tissue also stores poisons and infections that we digest. Once you start breaking down triglycerides, those same toxins will be released into your bloodstream again and need to get flushed out. There may also be some nervous stomach, irritable bowel of diarrhea.

Chapter Four: What We Know About Autophagy So Far

Autophagy is a metabolic process during which cells disassemble and remove their dysfunctional components. There are many benefits to autophagy, such as reduced inflammation, improved immunity, prevention of genotoxic stress, antiaging, suppression of cancerous tumor cells, and elimination of pathogens. Compromised autophagy pathways will lower the body’s ability to eliminate and heal the organism from inflammation, accumulation of toxins, and parasitic infections. Inability to cause autophagy makes rats fatter, less active, have higher cholesterol and impaired brain function.

When autophagy gets activated, the organelles of your healthy cells start to hunt out dead or diseased cells and then consume them.

Autophagy gets triggered mostly by nutrient starvation:

• In yeast, starvation of nitrogen and other essential factors like carbon, nucleic acid, auxotrophic amino acids, and even sulfate can activate autophagy to some degree.
• In plant cells, nitrogen and carbon starvation can also trigger autophagy. These were the points of interest for Dr. Ohsumi in yeast as well.
• In mammals, autophagy happens in various tissues in different degrees. There’s macro autophagy in the liver, brain, muscle, mitophagy in the mitochondria and Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy (CMA). Depletion of amino acids is a strong signal for triggering autophagy but that depends on the type of cell and amino acids because amino acid metabolism differs among tissues.
• In vivo, it’s thought that autophagy is regulated mostly by the endocrine system, particularly by insulin. Insulin suppresses liver autophagy by raising blood sugar and signaling the presence of nutrients. Glucagon, which is the counterpart of insulin, releases liver glycogen to be burnt for energy, and that increases autophagy.

The main inhibitor of autophagy in muscles is a kinase called Akt. It can regulate autophagy mainly in two ways: (1) a rapid regulation of mTOR activation, and (2) a slower response of gene transcription via FOXO3. FOXO3 controls the transcription of autophagy-related genes, such as LC3 and Bnip3, which mediate the effect of FOXO3 on autophagy. Akt activation blocks FOXO3 and autophagy.

With poor autophagy functioning, your body wouldn’t be able to maintain lean tissue. It improves your body’s ability to deal with catabolism and atrophy by promoting protein sparingness. A weakened or inadequate state of autophagy may contribute to aging, and muscle wasting through sarcopenia.

A constant supply of nutrients and access to energy inhibits the body’s ability to induce autophagy and protect against catabolism. In fact, a continuous circulation of both macro and micronutrients all the time inhibits their usage and uptake by making the cells less responsive. It means that to actually absorb the nutrients you’re feeding yourself, you need to go through periods of mild deprivation as you’ll be more sensitive to those nutrients afterwards again.

Exercise performed in a fasted state shows a higher increase in LC3BII level compared with a fed state, which suggests exercise done while fasting to have a better autophagic response.

To really gain the benefits of autophagy, you’d have to be fasting for over 48 hours to allow the stem cells and immune system to do their work. That’s why it’s recommended for everyone to fast for at least 3-5 days 2-3 times per year.

The Negative Side Effects of Autophagy

Autophagy controls inflammation and immunity by eliminating inflammasome activators. Removal of pathogens by autophagy is called xenophagy, which has many immune strengthening benefits. However, some bacteria like Brucella use autophagy to replicate themselves. That may cause some bacterial overgrowth or at least prevent its death.

The essential autophagy gene ATG6/BECN1 encoding the Beclin1 protein has been found to suppress tumors in cancer. However, it’s not been found to be that big of a tumor-suppressor as previously thought and sometimes it can even promote cancer due to the self-replicative process. Self-eating can enhance tumor cell fitness against environmental stressors, which makes them more resilient against starvation and chemotherapy. It may be that autophagy is better for cancer prevention rather than treatment.

It’s not clear whether autophagy prevents or promotes apoptosis or programmed cell death. The outcome turns out to depend on the stimulus and cell type. Blocking autophagy enhances the proapoptotic effect of bufalin on human gastric cancer cells, which is a Chinese medical toxin used for tumor suppression, through endoplasmic reticulum stress. In this example, less autophagy led to more cancer cell death because the cancer cells were weaker whereas with autophagy, they became stronger.

How to Measure Autophagy

To accurately estimate autophagic activity, it is essential to determine autophagic flux, which is defined as the amount of autophagic degradation. To trigger autophagic cell death you need a catabolic catalyst that would increase AMPK and cause cellular stress. Being anabolic and growing will inhibit autophagy by raising mTOR through the insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway.

To know whether or not you’re more anabolic or catabolic or more mTOR or AMPK activated, you can measure your insulin to glucagon ratio (IGR). In general, an increase in IGR is associated with more anabolism – weight gain, muscle growth, fat storage, hyperinsulinemia, and higher risk of hypoglycemia. A reduction in IGR promotes catabolism, fat loss, and prevents hypoglycemia.

To know your insulin to glucagon ratio you can take blood tests for insulin as well as glucagon from your medical doctor. Here’s what research has found to influence your IGR:

• A 1:1 insulin to glucagon ratio: 1.0
• While fasting you have lower insulin and more glucagon. Fasting + No Food: ~0.8
• While eating the Western Diet with higher carbs there’s more insulin. Carbs + Eating: ~4.0
• On a Low Carb Diet, there’s fewer carbs and less insulin. Low Carb + Eating: ~1.3
• Consuming protein while fasting causes a drop in insulin by raising glucagon-induced gluconeogenesis. Fasting + Protein: ~0.5
• Consuming protein on a low carb diet doesn’t raise insulin and doesn’t significantly affect glucagon. Low Carb + Protein: ~1.3
• Consuming protein with high amounts of carbohydrates spikes insulin 20x more than normally because of the anabolic effects. Carbs + Protein: ~70
• Amino acids combined with carbohydrates produce a much larger anabolic effect and insulin response than just carbs or protein alone. That’s a significant difference between macronutrients and their anabolic response.

The Glucose Ketone Index

Here’s the Glucose Ketone Index Formula: (Your Glucose Level / 18) / Your Ketones Level = Your Glucose Ketone Index

• Measure your blood glucose by pricking your finger. Write down the number you got.
• Measure your blood ketones by pricking your finger again. Write down the number you got.
• Divide your blood glucose number by 18.
  • If your device is using mg/dl, then dividing that with 18 converts it over to mmol/l
  • If your device is already showing mmol/l, then you don’t need to divide anything and can skip this step
• Divide your result from the previous step by your ketone numbers.
• The end result is your GKI.

In general, having a GKI below 3.0 indicates high levels of ketosis in relation to low levels of glucose; 3-6 shows moderate ketosis, and 6-9 is mild ketosis. Anything above 9 and 10 is no ketosis. Therefore, a lower GKI will reflect an estimated insulin-glucagon ratio by virtue of how glucose and ketones affect that relationship.

Thomas Seyfried (Cancer as a Metabolic Disease) says that the optimal glucose ketone index range for cancer treatment and prevention is between 0.7-2.0, preferably around 1.0.

If you combine a lower insulin to glucagon ratio with a lower glucose ketone index while you’re in a fasted state with depleted liver glycogen, then you can predict the degree of autophagy you’re in. It wouldn’t tell you about autophagy if you’d been eating because calories will suppress autophagy and you can be anabolic with higher mTOR while still maintaining a low insulin to glucagon ratio and vice versa. You can only predict it if you’re in a fasted state because that’s the surest way we know to increase autophagy.

You don’t want to be autophagic all the time either because it would prevent growth and repair of your body. Too much autophagy may lead to muscle wasting and dysfunctional cell death, which is why you want to balance catabolism with anabolism. Maintaining lean muscle is incredibly important for longevity and increased health span.

Balancing Autophagy and mTOR

The main idea of this entire book is that by regulating and controlling the expression of certain nutritional factors you can get drastic results in your body composition as well as expected lifespan. Let’s take a look at the Protein Kinase Triad once again:

• mTORC1 (mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1) – it’s the main regulator of cell growth and anabolism through upregulating protein synthesis
• mTORC2 (mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2) – it’s a multiprotein complex of TOR that regulates the actin cytoskeleton, which is a network of filaments and fibers, extending throughout the cytoplasm of cells
• AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) – it’s the main fuel sensor that helps to mobilize the body’s internal energy stores in situations of energy deprivation
• ULK1 (Unc-51-like kinase 1) – it’s a protein that’s involved with activating autophagy and other catabolic reactions to amino acid deficiencies

These 3 pathways (mTOR/Autophagy/AMPK) sense the energy status of the body and determine whether your cells will be favoring anabolic processes of growth or catabolic processes of self-devouring and preservation.

There’s always an evolutionary trade-off between anabolism and catabolism as well as growth and repair.

• Being too anabolic may speed up your biological clock by causing oxidative stress to the mitochondria and making your other organs work harder. If you grow fast, you’ll inevitably age faster as well.
• Being too catabolic and degrading at a quicker rate than you can repair will also damage vital cells and other processes in the body. In this case, you’ll die sooner just by virtue of physical deterioration.

Chapter Five: Squaring the Curve

Muscle and Longevity

Excess adipose tissue, especially visceral fat, increases the risk of heart disease, diabetes, fatty liver, insulin resistance, and hypertension.

• Visceral Fat – The fat around your abdominals and between the organs. It’s a bit harder to pinch and measure accurately.
• Subcutaneous Fat – The fat under your skin. You can pinch it quite easily with your fingers and wobble around. This one is less dangerous and used more for metabolic activities.

Visceral fat will continuously leach inflammatory cytokines and other metabolic substrates into your system that will promote inflammation and oxidative stress. Being overweight, experiencing too much stress, drinking alcohol, not sleeping enough, insulin resistance, and eating processed foods all contribute to visceral fat gain.

Healthy body fat percentages range from 8-14% for men and 15-23% in women. Acceptable ranges fall between 15-20% in men and 24-30% in women. In men, you’re considered overweight if your body fat % is above 21 and in women above 31%.

More muscle and strength reduce your chances of dying and can increase your lifespan, especially in older people.

Blue Zones

There are 5 Blue Zones: Okinawa in Japan, Sardinia in Italy, Nicoya in Costa Rica, Icaria in Greece, and the Seventh-Day Adventists in Loma Linda (California).

There are about 6 characteristics shared amongst these people that help them to live longer:

1. They eat a wholefoods-based diet with a variety of vegetables, fruit, fish, some meat, tubers, legumes, and whole grains.
2. They engage in moderate physical activity most of the day by working, gardening, spending time in nature, and walking.
3. They have lower levels of stress and less work which decreases their cortisol and slows down telomere shortening.
4. They stick to the circadian rhythms by following day and night cycles, getting a lot of exposure to natural sunlight, sleeping well at night, and having several naps throughout the day.
5. They have a strong sense of community as all of the people are actively engaged with their families and others around them.
6. They eat moderately and never too much because eating more would mean they’d have to work longer.

These people eat meat but they also eat vegetables. They eat bread but they also eat fish. They eat dairy but they also eat fruit. This creates a more robust intestinal flora, which supports the immune system and prevents disease.

These people move around at a low to moderate pace most of the day by walking around the household, riding a bike to check up on the neighbors, doing gardening to grow their own food, hiking in nature, throwing hay or whatever the situation demands.

Mild distress on the muscle preserves its mitochondrial function, which will prevent the age-related sarcopenia. It’s another hormetic adaptation that prolongs lifespan. Muscle mitohormesis is thought to promote longevity because of repressing insulin signaling. There is a hypothesis called Uncoupling to Survive, which suggests that increased mitochondrial uncoupling and thus increased energy expenditure might increase longevity by preventing the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in skeletal muscle mitochondria increases lifespan considerably. UCP1 or Thermogenin is an uncoupling protein found in the mitochondria of brown adipose tissue (BAT) that’s used to generate heat through non-shivering thermogenesis.

Fasting and resistance training promote UCP1, which in turn increases heat-shock proteins and lipid metabolism. Increased skeletal muscle uncoupling doesn’t seem to reduce oxidative stress in muscle cells but actually increases endogenous antioxidant defense systems and redox signaling.

Muscle cells (myocytes) produce myokines that fight inflammation and maintain healthy physiological functioning. That’s another potential mechanism by which muscle uncoupling protects against chronic diseases. Being fit and muscular also enables the person to maintain a slightly lower resting heart rate and blood sugar, by reducing inflammation levels and burning off visceral fat.

What Kind of Muscle Benefits Longevity?

Factors that underpin muscle quality include insulin sensitivity, motor unit control, body composition, metabolic status, aerobic capacity, fibrosis, and neural activation. All of them determine how well your muscle functions as well as the rate of decline with age. Muscle quality is closely connected with muscle strength and power. With age, you tend to see a progressive decrease of type IIb fibers. Being able to exert more force with less muscle size indicates higher muscle quality and mitochondrial density.

Low grip strength is associated with all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events, myocardial infarction, and stroke. It’s thought to be a stronger predictor of dying than systolic blood pressure. Another potential indicator of muscle quality is leg strength. In 2011, researchers found that leg strength was one of the most important factors for determining physical function and mortality.

Endurance and Cardio

Improved endurance exercise includes increased capillary supply, mitochondrial biogenesis, and improved transport of electrons in the mitochondrial transport chain. With higher aerobic fitness you’ll also use less muscle glycogen and produce less lactate, which allows you to perform at greater intensities.

Long hours of cardio are not that beneficial because of how the repetitive motions begin to tear down your tendons and promote joint pain. Excess aerobic training also increases the risk of oxidative damage in the muscles which may speed up sarcopenia, especially when dieting. On top of that, the prolonged stress hormones and free radicals in the blood may damage the mitochondria.

Black Hole Training is an exercise zone somewhere between a piece of cake and a Navy SEAL workout. You get an endorphin rush, which makes you think you’re getting a good workout but it’s stressful for the body.

• Basically, the Black Hole is a heart rate zone that exceeds your aerobic capacity just a tiny bit. Once you can’t hold a conversation anymore and have to breathe through your mouth, then you’re using more glycogen and less fat for fuel. For a few minutes, that’s fine, but most people never go running for 10. They hit runner’s flow because of the adrenaline rush and can easily empty their glycogen tank. Once this happens, the body still needs glucose to perform at such intensity. As a result, it begins to break down the protein.

If you’re doing cardio for 30+ minutes, then you should stay aerobic for the majority of the time. That’s when your heart rate is below 60-70% of your VO2 max. At that intensity, you’re using fat not glucose as fuel. Going higher than that will simply make you more glycolytic. With keto-adaptation, you can protect yourself against that to a certain extent but it’s simply not worth it.

Combining a lot of endurance with strength training may make you good at none of them because the body won’t have enough time or resources to adapt properly.

Chapter Six: HyperTORphyc Growth

Enter TOR

Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin or Mammalian Target of Rapamycin or mTOR is a protein kinase fuel sensor that monitors the energy status of your cells. There are two mTOR complexes – mTORC1 and mTORC2. They stimulate cell growth, proliferation, DNA repair, protein synthesis, new blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), muscle building, the immune system and everything related to anabolism.

• mTORC1 functions as a nutrient sensor that controls protein synthesis. mTORC1 is regulated by insulin, growth factors, amino acids, mechanical stimuli, oxidative stress, oxygen levels, the presence of energy molecules (ATP), phosphatidic acid, and glucose. It’s a key factor in skeletal muscle protein synthesis.
• mTORC2 regulates the actin cytoskeleton, which is a network of long chains of proteins in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It also phosphorylates IGF-1 receptor activity through the activity of the amino acid tyrosine protein kinase.

Here’s a simple explanation of the mTOR pathway and how it works:

• Whenever your body detects excess energy in the system, it’ll try to direct it into the right places.
• The mTOR complexes are activated by growth factors, primarily insulin and IGF-1, but also nutrient factors like amino acids and protein.
• Insulin Receptor (IR) and IGF-1 Receptor (IGF-1R) are in the class of tyrosine kinase receptors. Tyrosine is an amino acid. Activating these receptors leads to the phosphorylation of insulin substrate receptor proteins (IRS).
• IRS activates a protein called phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) which further phosphorylates inositol phospholipids like PIP3. PIP3 interacts with proteins PDK1 and Akt.
• Akt is thought to be one of the main upstream regulators of mTOR. Akt is a family of proteins that comprise of Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3. Akt1-2 are expressed in skeletal muscle while Akt3 is not.
• Akt inhibits protein breakdown by regulating FOXO proteins. FOXO proteins regulate protein breakdown and autophagy-related pathways. They are inhibited by Akt, which prevents cell death.
• When there are plenty of nutrients around, mTORC1 binds to ULK1, which is an autophagy activating kinase and inhibits the formation of autophagosomes which would initiate autophagy. When energy gets depleted, mTORC1 becomes inactive and releases itself from the ULK1 complex, thus freeing up the formation of autophagosomes.

What Activates mTOR?

mTOR regulation is mostly mediated through AMP-activated kinase (AMPK). AMPK monitors the energy status of the cells through their glycogen content and ATP to AMP to ADP ratios. It’s called the adenylate energy charge that measures the energy status of cells.

In an abundance of ATP, the body has more resources to conduct repair and growth. If ATP levels are low or depleted, ADP and AMP ratios increase and they’ll get converted into ATP to maintain homeostasis. A reduction in energy activates AMPK which promotes catabolic pathways for maintaining energy homeostasis. AMPK inhibits muscle growth by suppressing mTORC1.

Here are the other mTOR activating nutrients and factors:

• Amino acids promote mTORC1 activity without affecting mTORC2 activity. Leucine specifically activates mTORC1 the most. Some evidence also hints that leucine’s by-product HMB may have a similar anabolic effect through the signaling pathway of mTORC1. You’d get the same effect directly from leucine.
• Mechanical stimuli from resistance exercise, especially eccentric contractions, increases the levels of mTORC1. That’s why cold exposure can sometimes also activate mTOR in muscles – you freeze up and contract the muscles. Phosphatidic acid gets regulated by exercise which activates mTORC1.
• Phosphatidic acid enhances mTOR signaling and resistance exercise-induced hypertrophy. It’s found in cabbage leaves, radish leaves, and herbs or can be taken as a supplement.
• Ursolic acid stimulates mTORC1 after resistance training in mice. It stimulates anabolism via PI3K/Akt pathways. Ursolic acid can be taken as a supplement or found in foods like apples, bilberries, rosemary, lavender, thyme, oregano and many more.
• Creatine may potentially promote mTORC1 by increasing IGF-1 activity after exercise but doesn’t further potentiate mTORC1 several hours after exercise. So, the best time to take it is with your post-workout meal. It’s one of the most well-studied supplements that actually seems to work. 
• Testosterone and androgens can also signal mTOR and induce muscle hypertrophy. Testosterone has many anti-catabolic as well as anabolic properties, which is why high cortisol tends to wreak havoc on this hormone.

Suppressing mTOR with diet or certain supplements like Metformin and Rapamycin are common ways of treating cancer and tumor growth.

• Rapamycin inhibits mTORC1, which is thought to increase life expectancy in animal studies.
• Disrupting mTORC2 with rapamycin may induce insulin resistance as well as symptoms of diabetes and glucose intolerance.
• Increased glycolysis, which is the metabolism of glucose into lactate, is often found to be higher in cancer cells, also known as the Warburg Effect.
• Akt regulates Hexokinase 2, which is thought to cause this enhanced glycolysis in cancer cells. mTOR promotes the activation of insulin receptors and IGF-1 receptors, which is in most cases accompanied by glucose and glycolysis. Hence the association of mTOR with cancer.
• Patients with Alzheimer’s disease also show dysregulated mTOR activity in the brain and connection with beta-amyloid proteins.
• Methionine restriction could be beneficial for longevity as well. SAM (SAdenosyl- Methionine) is the 2nd most common cofactor in enzymes after ATP, which detects the presence of methionine-related nutrients in the body. One of the methionine sensors SAMTOR (S-adenosylmethionine upstream of mTORC1) inhibits mTORC1 signaling. Methionine restriction lowers SAM and increases SAMTOR, which improves glucose homeostasis and can promote longevity along the lines of caloric restriction. One of the reasons why it’s thought that restricting calories and methionine extends life is because of decreased mTOR and insulin.
• mTOR may promote intestinal inflammation as well as skin acne, which is more proof to how high mTOR all the time accelerates aging. However, this effect is probably due to a poor microbiome and other inflammatory lifestyle factors not necessarily mTOR itself. mTOR simply makes things worse in some cases because of its anabolic effects.

What Inhibits mTOR?

• Dietary protein restriction lowers mTOR. Amino acid deficiency, in particular, regulates mTOR.
• Calorie restriction lowers mTOR and promotes autophagy.
• Ghrelin the hunger hormone activates AMPK in the hypothalamus and inhibits mTOR.
• Fasting lowers glucose, insulin, and suppresses mTOR while raising AMPK. This is the most effective method of inhibiting mTOR. It also raises autophagy and promotes ketosis.
• Ketogenic Diets are moderate in protein and low glucose, which lowers mTOR activity. Glucagon, which is a hormone that raises in the presence of low glucose and insulin, activates AMPK and represses mTOR.
• Exercise inhibits mTORC1 in liver and fat cells. This is great because you’ll be preventing fat gain while promoting longevity and muscle growth. The post-exercise time window, however, facilitates muscle protein synthesis in muscle cells because of the mechano-overload. That’s another mechanism by which resistance training is great for increasing lifespan – more mTOR in muscles and less mTOR in fat cells.
• Glucocorticoids and cortisol get elevated during physiological stress. Cortisol helps to mobilize glycogen and fatty acids. This shifts the body into a more catabolic state.
• Metformin is a potent anti-diabetic drug that lowers blood sugar and insulin, thus lowering mTOR. Berberine is a medicinal compound that has similar effects.
• Rapamycin is an immunosuppressing drug that lowers mTOR. It’s been used to fight cancers and tumors in humans.
• Resveratrol is a compound found in certain fruit and red wine that has a longevity-boosting effect. Part of it has to do with sirtuins and autophagy.
• Curcumin inhibits mTOR signaling in cancer cells. Reishi fights tumors as well by blocking mTOR. Rhodiola Rosea and astragalus too.
• Anthocyanins found in blueberries and grape seed extract promote AMPK and block mTOR. Pomegranate as well.
• Alcohol activates AMPK and regulates the mTOR complex. It doesn’t go to say that drinking is going to boost your longevity. Remember that mTOR inhibition is just a single piece of the puzzle.
• Oleanolic acid contributes to anti-tumor activity. Main food sources of oleanolic acid are apples, pomegranates, bilberries, lemons, grapes, bilberries, and olives.
• Carnosine inhibits the proliferation of human gastric carcinoma cancer cells by retarding mTOR signaling. Carnosine is an amino acid with anti-aging and antioxidant benefits that fights free radicals as well. Interestingly, it’s found the most in animal foods and meat.

Benefits of mTOR

• mTOR is required for protein synthesis and skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Suppressing mTOR for too long or having too much autophagy leads to muscle atrophy and loss of lean tissue through sarcopenia, which can contribute to aging and metabolic disorders.
• mTORC2 regulates the distribution of mitochondria and mTORC2-activated AKT is linked to mitochondrial proliferation. mTOR also promotes mitochondrial biogenesis by activating PGC1-alpha.
  • mTORC2 localizes mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM). This localization is stimulated by PI3K growth factors.
  • mTORC2 deficiency creates a defect in MAM, which causes an uptake of calcium in the mitochondria. Probably not good for atherosclerosis and plaque formation.
• mTOR can also help you lose weight and be healthier. mTORC2 regulates glucose homeostasis via Akt. Akt promotes glucose uptake by increasing GLUT4 translocation to the membrane in adipocytes. The same effect is also true because of increased muscle mass and insulin sensitivity that’s accompanied by muscle. If you have too low mTOR then you won’t be able to build muscle thus having poorer metabolic flexibility and predisposing yourself to disease.
• mTOR also contributes to neural plasticity and learning memory development. Neuroplasticity is a key factor in learning, skill acquisition, and memory retention. It seems that both too low levels of mTOR and overexpression of mTOR cause impaired learning and cognitive decline. Activating mTOR in prefrontal neurons by HMB inhibits age-related cognitive decline in animals. mTOR also helps to grow synaptic connections.

All in all, mTOR signaling seems to be more problematic in people who already have a certain disease such as cancer, tumors, diabetes, or Alzheimer’s.

You want to activate mTOR in muscle cells, brain cells, and mitochondria instead of fat cells and cancer cells.

• Exercise activates mTOR in the brain and promotes skeletal muscle mTOR. Resistance training, in particular, will make you build muscle through the mechanistic stimuli of mTOR.
• Time restricted eating is probably the most effective and most critical thing for controlling mTOR. Even though you may be eating a low mTOR diet you need autophagy as well if you want to promote life-span.
  • If you’re fasting for longer periods of time and you’re eating less often, then you need to make your meals more mTOR stimulating to counterbalance the catabolic effects of fasting and support muscle homeostasis.
  • If you’re fasting less and you’re eating frequently, then it’s indeed a better idea to keep your foods lower in mTOR as to avoid excess growth.
• The mTOR pathway has many functions beyond just muscle growth and anabolism. It regulates the immune system, fat storage, and with AMPK controls whole-body energy balance.

Is IGF-1 Good or Bad

Most of IGF-1 gets mediated by growth hormone that’s produced in the hypothalamus. When the anterior pituitary gland in the hypothalamus releases growth hormone into the blood, the liver responds by stimulating the production of IGF-1. IGF-1 activates the Akt pathway, which is a downstream activator of mTOR.

There are many functional benefits to IGF-1:

• IGF-1 supports muscle growth and protects against muscle wasting. It also promotes bone growth and strength. Protein and amino acids increase IGF-1 levels as well independent of caloric intake. 
• IGF-1 regulates glutathione peroxidase, which is one of the most potent antioxidant pathways in the human body. These antioxidant benefits can protect against heart disease by clearing out plaques in the arteries.
• IGF-1 fights autoimmune disorders by increasing T-cells and boosts the immune system.
• IGF-1 improves blood sugar regulation. Lower IGF-1 is associated with metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance

IGF-1 can protect cells against oxidative stress, which will prevent cell death and can protect against disease. However, if the person’s already sick and has cancer, then IGF-1 will also prevent cancer cells from dying in chemotherapy.

IGF-1 and Aging

• The association of IGF-1 and mortality follows a U-shaped curve with both too high and too low levels of IGF-1 are linked to increased mortality risk.
• IGF-1 is correlated with longer telomere length which is an important predictor of longevity. That’s why there’s this dichotomy between having enough IGF-1 for muscle and cellular maintenance VS not dying to the proliferation of cancerous tumors. Furthermore, IGF-1 has many benefits on cognition and brain functioning.
• When IGF-1 is low, inflammation tends to increase due to inadequate antioxidant and repair processes. IGF-1 stimulates collagen synthesis and prevents aging of the skin. However, too much IGF-1 and mTOR may cause acne and rashes.
• In healthy individuals, IGF-1 expression would be balanced by the IGF-1 binding protein (IGFBP), which blocks IGF-1s effects. That’s why IGF-1 is bad only if you have too much free serum IGF-1 in the blood. This may happen because the person is being more anabolic than their body needs to be whether due to sedentary living, eating too many calories, not doing proper resistance training, or some other metabolic mismatch.
• Elevating IGF-1 above a safe limit is also very difficult unless you’re taking growth hormone supplements, anabolic steroids, you have insulin resistance or you’re eating copious amounts of excess protein.

How to Inhibit IGF-1

• Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting can help to reduce cancer development, protect against cognitive decline, reverse diabetes and slow down aging.
• Intense walking affects serum IGF-1 and IGFBP3. This is probably because physical movement helps to lower insulin and blood glucose, thus lowering IGF-1 as well.
• Curcumin lowers IGF-1 by activating AMPK and autophagy.
• Luteolin inhibits proliferation of breast cancer cells induced by IGF-1. It’s a polyphenol and flavonoid that stimulates AMPK.
• EGCG from green tea inhibits IGF-1 stimulated lung cancer. Another polyphenol in action.

How to Increase IGF-1

• Deer antler spray extract is said to contain IGF-1 and promote the production of testosterone.
• Red meat, dairy products, and dietary calcium are associated with higher IGF-1.
• Dietary fat and carbohydrates raise IGF-1 and lower IGF-1 binding proteins.
• DHEA is an endogenous steroid hormone that supports muscle strength and IGF-1.
• Leucine and its by-product HMB supplementation increase growth hormone, muscle growth, and IGF-1.
• Low zinc causes low IGF-1 as it’s thought zinc potentiates IGF-1 actions.
• Selenium and magnesium are associated with total IGF-1.
• However, IGF-1 is poorly absorbed by the intestines because of being broken down very rapidly in the gut.
• Resistance training increases the bioavailability of IGF-1 and supports bone density, especially in older people.
• Sauna sessions can also boost growth hormone and thus increase IGF-1. In fact, growth hormone may rise by 140% immediately after a sauna session.

Chapter Seven: Starting with Strength

The two contributing factors are sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and myofibrillar hypertrophy:

• Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy focuses on increasing muscle glycogen storage. It increases the volume of sarcoplasmic fluid in the muscle cells and isn’t accompanied by significant strength gain. The amount of potential blood being stored in the muscles increases. This is the bodybuilder approach. It’s caused by several sets of 8-12 reps against a submaximal load.
• Myofibrillar hypertrophy increases the number of proteins necessary for adding muscular strength and will also cause small enhancements in size. It’s caused by muscle contractions against 80-90% of the one-repetition maximum for 2-6 reps.

The anabolic cycle has two stages. Firstly, we’re stimulating growth that puts us in a catabolic state whether through training or intermittent fasting. Secondly, the effects get finalized, which leads to adaptation. Muscle and strength gain requires both of these steps and happens under the following conditions:

• There is adequate stimulus that forces the body to respond. This way the nervous system recognizes the necessity for proper adaptation to the stress encountered in the given environment. Too much, however, will lead to burnout and is difficult to recover from.
• Hormones and pathways that stimulate growth are met. Testosterone, HGH, IGF-1, mTOR are one of the more important ones for cellular repair and augmentation.
• Protein synthesis is necessary for new tissue to be created. With no building blocks to be found, we won’t be able to construct anything.
• Energy is the last condition, as all of this requires calories. Under some rare conditions, the energy can be derived from the body’s own fat store. 

Training Principles

At one end we have low threshold motor units (LTMUs), which correspond with type I slow twitch fibers, and at the other high threshold motor units (HTMUs), that correspond with type IIb fast twitch fibers. Type IIa falls somewhere in the middle. Both of them get activated according to the force that’s required to move an object. LTMUs for small power, such as lifting a cup, and HTMUs when the resistance is high, such as a near maximum deadlift.

How Should You Train

Current research shows that training a muscle twice a week leads to superior hypertrophy compared to once a week. Therefore, you’d want to be targeting the main muscle groups like legs, chest, back, shoulders, and arms at least two times per week.

More frequent muscle stimulation keeps protein synthesis more active and elevated. The window for growth lasts somewhere between 24-48 hours after training in advanced trainees.

• If you train your chest only on Monday, then the anabolic stimulus will be gone by the middle of the week and thus you lose out on a few days of potential growth.
• On the flip side, training a particular muscle 2-4 times a week will enable you to take advantage of this constantly elevated signal for building lean tissue. It’s probably better for longevity as well because you’ll be more sensitive to insulin and mTOR.

Increasing training frequency also lowers rates of perceived exertion (RPE), reduces delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and increases the testosterone to cortisol ratio. Training more frequently requires that you scale down the volume or intensity of each workout, which enables you to train more often.

The main driver of muscle growth is total volume – how frequent intense growth signals are you able to send to a particular muscle throughout the week. Of course, there’s a limit that the body can handle but generally working out more often facilitates increased hypertrophy because of increased volume.

The most popular and simplest strength training program out there is Stronglifts 5×5. It consists of 2 full-body workouts. You train 3 times a week, alternating between A and B, with at least one rest day between workouts.

• Workout A: Squat, Bench press, Barbell row
• Workout B: Squat, Overhead press, Deadlift
• For your elbow tendons, wrist and forearms you can do extremely slow full range of motion pullups, pushups or biceps curls. Wrist curls and farmer’s carry-s will also improve your grip strength and give you iron hands.
• For the legs and hips, you should do some walking lunges, Bulgarian split squats, hip extensions, and kettlebell swings. This will increase the range of your neuromuscular finesse and teaches you how to execute hip drive.
• Don’t forget core work either, as it’s important for structural integrity and a solid posture. Abdominal work will also help to define your six pack once you’ve reached a low body fat percentage. Do hanging leg raises, ab-wheel rollouts, dragonflags as your main exercises. Add hollow body holds, oblique twists and plank holds as accessories if you feel the need.

Training Structure

Warmup. The first thing you want to do is warm up. This will increase your core temperature, directs some blood to your muscles and puts you in the mood.

• Do about 3-5 minutes of light cardio or something aerobic.
• Spend at least 5 minutes doing mobility work. Do arm circles, deep lunges, squats, some pushups, hang from a bar, and get rid of all of the cracks you might have. Focus more on the body parts you’re about to train.
• DON’T do static stretching. This is the complete opposite of what we want to achieve with our training. Your muscles have to be tight and strong if you’re lifting heavy weights. Stretching can lead to injuries because you’ll soften your fascia. Do dynamic stretching with mobility instead.

Skill work. This is the part in which you’re practicing a technique of some sort. It’s second because you’ll still be fresh and ready to go. Do handstand holds, snatches, focus on perfect form and proper ranges of motion. Skill work is almost like an extended warm-up, as you’ll be still priming your muscles for the actual work. Do this for about 5-10 minutes.

Strength work. This is the core of your workout – the most difficult and taxing part. In here you’ll be doing your key lifts, such as the squat, deadlift, pressing, rows or benching. All of your efforts should be directed into improving the weight you can move. Power and explosive work can also be included here, as you want to be as fresh as possible so that you could get stronger. Don’t think about getting a cardio workout in this phase and focus solely on your lifts. This is the bulk of your training and should last for about 30-45 minutes, depending on how long your workout lasts in total.

Accessory/hypertrophy work. After you’ve finished your compound lifts, you can also do some accessory work. Isolation exercises can add the extra benefit of sculpting your physique exactly the way you envision it to be. It’s also a great way to build those smaller muscles, such as the forearms, calves and elbow tendons, that benefit more from higher reps. This is the hypertrophy part of your workout, that’s actually necessary for increasing your key lifts as well. Do about 3 sets of 8-15 reps each and focus on the pump. Accessory exercises should complement the major lifts you did that workout. For instance, if you did squats, then you should do walking lunges, Bulgarian split squats or leg extensions, instead of biceps curls or dips. If you deadlift, then do rows and pull-ups.

Metabolic conditioning. To improve your cardiovascular fitness and burn more fat. Do 5 minutes of Tabata or about 10-20 minutes of LISS cardio. These exercises are done to take advantage of the state in which your muscles are at after resistance training. They’re not as taxing on the nervous system as the main lifts. You can still have a good conditioning session after strength training, whereas it wouldn’t work the other way around.

Prehabilitation/mobility and cool down. Lastly, flexibility and mobility work are done at the end. These help your body to relax and help to prevent injury. Try to increase your mobility by doing deep squats, back bridges, splits and foam rolling. Work on your rotator cuffs, hips and elbows so that they would get stronger.

Principles to Remember

• When training, have a clear idea of what you’re trying to achieve. Exercise, go for a walk, play sports and do yoga just for fun, but train with a specific goal in mind.
• Structure your workout routines around only 2 of the 3 variables of the triad. They are frequency, intensity, and volume. Don’t try to scale them up all at once.
• When you’re aerobic and can breathe easily through your nose, then you’re burning primarily fat. If you start breathing heavily through the mouth, then you’ve reached the anaerobic zone and will be utilizing glycogen for fuel.
• If you do cardio, then avoid the Black Zone. Running and cycling for more than 30 minutes are supposed to be aerobic. Start slow and you’ll be able to go faster as your heart rate improves.
• Doing Tabata and HIIT is a much more time-efficient way of improving cardiovascular health for the majority of people.
• Resistance training is a lot more important for health, longevity, muscle growth and bone density. The least you should be doing is 12 minutes per week but for more optimal growth slightly more is needed.
• Nutrition is more important than exercise. Whoever you may be, lowering your carbohydrate intake will be beneficial for your health and body composition. But low carb won’t work if you don’t have an idea of what you’re doing. It would only keep you in the Black Hole of eating.

Chapter Eight: Anabolic Autophagy

Can You Build Muscle and Lose Fat at the Same Time?

To lose fat you have to be at an energy deficit i.e. burn more energy than you consume.

To build muscle you have to be at an energy surplus i.e. consume more energy than you burn.

Calories aren’t just calories because they can be partitioned differently according to the macronutrient ratios, quality of nutrients, hormone levels, training status, and overall energetic demands on the body.

If your workouts are stimulating the muscles enough, and if you follow it up with adequate muscle protein synthesis by consuming enough protein, then the rest of what you need can be derived from stored body fat. Likewise, you can gain fat and lose muscle at the same time by doing a lot of catabolic exercise like chronic cardio for hours and overconsuming daily calories with very little protein.

The adipose tissue consists of stored triglycerides, which is an ester comprising of three fatty acid molecule chains and a glycerol backbone that holds them together. This single fat particle can cover most of the body’s metabolic needs in at least the short term. Fat is fuel that most tissues and muscle can use.

Lactate is the byproduct of glucose metabolism and it’s been shown to contribute up to 18% of skeletal muscle glycogen synthesis after high-intensity exercise. Basically, during high-intensity workouts, you’re producing a lot of lactic acid by burning off your muscle glycogen. To eliminate the burn effect and restore the glycogen you lost, the body uses some amounts of that lactate for muscle glycogen resynthesis.

There are certain times the body needs more fuel and amino acids than at others:

• After working out, the muscles are more prone to shuttle the nutrients you’ve consumed into glycogen stores and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis. In that scenario, all the calories you eat would be primarily directed towards positive muscle growth rather than fat accumulation because the body prioritizes recovery rather than storage.
• On the flip side, eating a bunch of excess calories without having moved a flower will inevitably be more pro-fat gain just because the body isn’t under such energetic conditions that would favor high energy intake. What the body doesn’t need right away will be used for storage.

In the case of intermittent fasting, you would inevitably see a much bigger lean muscle gain if you were to consume most of your calories after a resistance training workout. The dominos will all be set in line – the mechano-overload from exercise, depleted glycogen stores, activated mTOR, and nervous system fatigue – everything is much favorable for building muscle as long as you stimulate MPS and bring in the building blocks.

Intermittent fasting and time-restricted feeding are such powerful tools for building muscle and burning fat at the same time.

• Whenever you’re fasting, you’ll be burning more fat, suppressing hunger, and promoting growth hormone that helps to maintain muscle.
• You don’t need a bunch of calories or energy to do strength-based resistance training. That’s the main catalyst for muscle growth and it can be easily done with limited supplies.
• Eating food after working out will promote more muscle growth rather than fat gain. It will facilitate a more anabolic response while still eating fewer calories.
• Eating more food before working out may make you lose a bit more muscle if you’re eating at a caloric deficit. The reason being nutrient partitioning and meal timing.

Losing Muscle While Fasting

Growth hormone increases exponentially by up to 2000-3000% at the 24-hour mark.

Another hormone that’s going to help you build muscle is testosterone.

• Short-term fasting has been shown to increase Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which is a precursor to testosterone. In a study done on obese men, LH increased by 67% after 56 hours.
• Another study found that obese men saw a 26% increase in GNHR (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone), which is another testosterone stimulant. The same study found that men who were working out saw a 67% increase in GNHR, which led to a 180% boost in testosterone.

(1) Gluconeogenesis While Fasting

The reason you may trigger gluconeogenesis is that you don’t have access to other fuel sources, like fat. Your body isn’t keto-adapted to burning ketones yet and the next best thing it can think of is protein.

(2) Autophagy and Muscle Loss

The second reason why you may lose muscle while fasting is the inhibition of autophagy. Studies have found that autophagy is needed for maintaining muscle mass.

• If you’re doing a caloric restriction diet but blocking the effects of autophagy, then you’re going to keep yourself in a semi-starvation state because your body will never switch into ketosis. This leads to gluconeogenesis.
• If, however, you allow autophagy to kick in, whether that be through strict water fasting or a fasting mimicking ketogenic diet, then you’re also stimulating the other growth hormones we’ve been talking about so far and it’s going to preserve your muscle.

Even as little as 50 calories or 2-3 grams of leucine will stop autophagy and shift you into a fed state. It’s going to be better for fat loss, for muscle sparing and for longevity, to avoid all calories during your fasting window.

There are several possible mechanisms by which a ketogenic diet preserves muscle mass and prevents protein catabolism.

• Low blood glucose stimulates the secretion of adrenaline, which regulates skeletal muscle protein mass. Adrenaline’s been shown to directly inhibit protein breakdown.
• Ketone bodies provide a plentiful source of fuel to brain and muscle tissue, which suppresses protein oxidation and gluconeogenesis of muscle. In fact, BHB has been shown to decrease leucine oxidation and actually promote protein synthesis in humans.
• Dietary protein consumption also has a much greater muscle sparing effect than carbohydrates. Eating protein increases protein synthesis by increasing the availability of amino acids in the blood.
• When eating at a caloric deficit, higher protein intake has also been shown to reduce muscle loss and promote fat loss.

Can Fasting Make You Build Muscle

Studies have found that fasting lowers the expression of mTOR and IGF-1, which are both needed for cellular growth by increasing one of their inhibiting proteins called IGFBP1.

TOR has quite a detrimental role in anabolism. Inhibiting mTOR blocks the anabolic effects of resistance training and prevents muscle growth. mTOR is clearly anabolic but also anti-catabolic. It’s going to protect the body against the harmful effects of cortisol and glucocorticoids on muscle tissue.

The rationale of trying to build muscle and strength with intermittent fasting isn’t oriented towards maximizing muscle growth or performance. It’s about prioritizing longevity and not over-stimulating the anabolic effects of mTOR all the time.

Chapter Nine: Protein Absorption and Anabolism

Protein is the only macronutrient that can’t be stored inside the body long-term.

• Carbohydrates can be stored as liver and muscle glycogen (100- 500 grams). Extra carbs will be burnt off as energy or converted into triglycerides and get stored as body fat.
• Fat and extra carb can be stored in an infinite amount as body fat in the adipose tissue. You can gain as much adipose tissue as you can possibly consume from too many calories.
• Protein intake will be used for elevating muscle protein synthesis and activating mTOR which will help to maintain your current lean muscle mass. To activate these pathways, you need only a certain amount of protein and more won’t have a dose-increasing effect.

In the short term, an influx of increased protein supply won’t trigger gluconeogenesis of your own muscle tissue because there is no demand there. The body will have met its need for amino acids and thus doesn’t require additional glucose. Temporary protein stores fluctuate throughout the day and they’re connected to the feeding and fasting cycles.

How Much Protein Does Your Body Need?

The more lean muscle mass you have, the more protein you need to sustain that amount of muscle. Higher bodyweight requires more building blocks just because of having more mass. However, for optimal health and body composition, you’d want to focus on your lean muscle mass. The idea is to lose the fat and maintain the muscle not feed the fat with extra calories from unnecessary protein.

Being more active in general increases your protein demands because physical activity damages the muscle cells to a certain extent.

• If you do resistance training, you need more protein to support that training with enough protein synthesis and mTOR activation.
• If you do primarily endurance training, you need slightly less protein because endurance training doesn’t break down that much muscle tissue as resistance training does. Even if it does, the purpose of endurance training isn’t to build muscles so the desired intake of protein wouldn’t be higher either.
• As you age your ability to maintain skeletal muscle decrease and thus you need more protein as well.

In general, the optimal amount of protein tends to be somewhere between 0.7-1.0 g/lbs or 1.5-2.0 g/kgs of lean body mass (LBM), which for the same average individual weighing between 150-180 pounds would be 110-160 grams of protein at a minimum. There are no seeming benefits to eating more than 0.8 g/lbs of LBM, even when trying to build muscle.

When you digest protein, it gets broken down into amino acids that will be transported into the bloodstream to be used as building blocks. There are a limited amount of transporter cells and receptors in the small intestine which restricts how many amino acids can be moved into the blood. Hence the theory that your body can only absorb a certain amount of protein in one meal.

Certain proteins are absorbed faster than others which allows the amino acids to be used more quickly as well. However, there are many other factors that determine protein absorption such as the pH levels of the gut, the permeability of the intestinal lining, protein sensitivity, and the presence of hormones related to gastric emptying.

The general consensus is that you can only absorb 30 grams of protein per meal and you need to spread your protein intake across 4-6 meals to maximize protein synthesis over the 24-hour period.

Amino acids and some peptides are able to self-regulate their time in the intestines. For example, the digestive hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) can slow down the contraction speed of intestines in response to protein intake. CCK gets released when you eat dietary protein and it slows down your digestion as to absorb it better.

If you eat more protein than your body needs right now to trigger protein synthesis, it slows down the digestion of the excess and then gradually releases the amino acids into the blood over the course of the coming hours when your protein synthesis gets lower. Some amino acids can even be temporarily stored inside muscle cells for future use whether for maintaining amino acid homeostasis or for energy production. The reason it’s thought that you can only absorb 30 grams of protein in one sitting is that you only need about 20-30 grams of protein to trigger muscle protein synthesis and actually build muscle. Any more than 40 grams doesn’t stimulate MPS further.

Triggering muscle protein synthesis is mostly regulated through leucine, which is the main anabolic amino acid. It requires about 2-3 grams of leucine to activate MPS and generally, you can get that amount of leucine from 20-30 grams of a complete protein. 

Several intermittent fasting studies have also shown that eating your entire days’ protein in a 4-hour eating window has had no negative effects on muscle preservation. When it comes to body composition and fat loss, then meal timing has been shown to be irrelevant as intermittent fasting doesn’t slow down your metabolism or make you lose muscle.

Being in a fasted state makes you more protein sparing and anticatabolic by increasing growth hormone and ketones. Higher levels of growth hormone and IGF-1 can stimulate muscle protein synthesis and it definitely improves the body’s sensitivity to protein intake. You’ll end up absorbing your food better because it’s perceived as scarcer.

Here’s what to do to increase protein absorption with intermittent fasting:

• Exercising before food will also deplete your body’s glycogen stores which makes the muscle cells more eager to absorb carbohydrates from food. Every food that’s used for recovering from exercise will be prioritized much higher for both muscle growth and maximal absorption.
• Before eating you want to create an acidic intestinal environment by stimulating the production of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the gut. Foods high in HCl are lemons, celery, olives, and vinegar.
• Warm lemon water with apple cider vinegar is great for blunting the blood sugar response of eating and helps with digestion. Ginger, in particular, helps with protein absorption.
• Before eating you also want to put yourself into a parasympathetic state and become relaxed. If you’re stressed out or are feeling anxious, then your adrenals will direct blood flow away from the gut into the extremities. This is going to shut down digestion and promotes constipation. That’s why never eat when you’re stressed out and always sit down with your meal. Chewing your food is also incredibly important because it’s going to make it easier for your gut to absorb it. Don’t eat on the run and always be mindful of what you put into your mouth.
• Prebiotics are plant fibers that travel through the intestines unchanged and they help with digestion by feeding the bacteria in your gut. Prebiotic foods you should eat as the first part of your meal are garlic, onions, asparagus, leeks, artichokes, dandelion, chicory root, and green bananas.
• Probiotics promote the creation of live bacteria in your gut that are going to help with breaking down the nutrients from your food. They’re microorganisms that are going to influence your mood, your immune system, your cognitive functioning, and body composition. Therefore, you want to maintain a healthy gut flora by eating fermented foods like sauerkraut, pickles, kimchi, olives, miso, raw kefir, and even very dark chocolate.
• Combining large amounts of protein with starches and carbohydrates are also going to inhibit the digestion of those foods because they require different digestive enzymes. That’s why animal foods are best eaten with just vegetables and fermented foods. If you do eat starch then it should be easily digestible cooked starch like sweet potatoes, white potatoes, white rice, or buckwheat.
• Slow walking after your meal is also going to lower the blood sugar response from what you ate and helps with digestion. It has to be a very slow and peaceful stroll because if you become too sympathetic, you’ll shut down the digestion again.

Should You Consume Protein Before Working Out

When you’re doing resistance training, then you’re inducing damage to the muscle cells and tissues. If you consume adequate protein after the workout, you’ll be able to heal that damage and hopefully result in sarcoplasmic hypertrophy. However, when working out fasted you have limited amino acid availability and thus are subject to increased muscle damage. That may not be ideal for someone trying to build more muscle because they may end up with a NET negative muscle homeostasis.

The amount of protein you can absorb in one sitting is arbitrary for maintaining lean tissue but it’s probably not optimal for positive NET growth. That’s why having some amino acids circulating the bloodstream during the workout will not only minimize the muscular damage but will also promote additional muscle protein synthesis after training.

However, there are still some advantages to working out fasted:

• Consuming carbohydrates and raising insulin suppresses lipolysis and fat burning during exercise. You’d have to burn through those carbs first before getting access to your adipose tissue.
• Whether or not it matters is subject to context and the goal of that particular training session.
• Training fasted improves glucose tolerance and improves insulin sensitivity, which doesn’t help with muscle growth directly but it’ll help you to stay leaner while building muscle.
• Fasting increases blood flow in abdominal subcutaneous fat, which can help with losing that stubborn belly fat. A 3-day fast increased abdominal subcutaneous blood flow by 50%. 
• Fasted resistance training causes a bigger anabolic response to eating post-workout than fed training by increasing the p70S6 kinase. Theoretically, you’ll create a bigger super-compensatory effect for muscle hypertrophy by working out while fasting and then refeeding properly.
• Increased growth hormone from working out fasted may help to preserve lean muscle and protect against excessive catabolism. This may be worthwhile if you’re eating at a caloric deficit but still getting more than enough protein. At other times, it would depend on what macro ratios you eat.

To maximize the autophagic benefits of fasting, you’d want to fast for as long as possible every day. In most cases, that would entail about a 20-hour fasted window.

For optimal muscle growth, you’d want to have a smaller number of amino acids and protein in your system before working out.

For better body composition and nutrient partitioning, you’d benefit more from backloading most of your calories into the post-workout scenario where your body prioritizes recovery.

Here’s what the Targeted Intermittent Fasting Protocol looks like:

• Fast for the majority of the day as long as you can before working out.
• Consume only water and zero calorie teas or coffee all the way up until 18-20 hours of fasting.
• When starting to workout at 18-20 hours, consume a protein shake with 20-30 grams protein. It’s preferable to drink it during the actual workout and use quality protein powders that don’t have artificial sweeteners or other additives.
• While working out, focus on heavier compound movements and hypertrophic exercises to stimulate muscle growth. In between your sets, sip on the protein shake.
• In the post-workout scenario eat the rest of your calories within 2-3 hours or in a single meal. Make sure you still get enough protein after training.

Post-Workout Nutrition While Fasting

Eating immediately afterwards isn’t ideal because you may be still under the influence of cortisol and digestive stress, which can promote gut issues and fat gain. The sweet spot for muscle protein synthesis and avoiding catabolism seems to be between 60-195 minutes after training but not before 60 minutes.

Protein shakes would have the most effect either immediately before or intra-workout, ala targeted intermittent fasting. If you wait for 2 hours and eat, then it’d be better to get your amino acids from real food but if you don’t have access to those conditions, then the shake is a great alternative.

When taking any fitness supplements, you have to be wary of their ingredients and content. You definitely want to avoid artificial sweeteners like sucralose, saccharin, fructose, and aspartame because they’re linked to insulin resistance and other diseases. They’re still going to spike insulin and even disrupt the microbiome by promoting the proliferation of certain gut buts that can extract more calories from the food you eat.

In general, workout somewhere between the 16–20-hour mark of fasting and wait at least 60-120 minutes before eating anything. The fear of missing out on this so-called “anabolic window” wherein you’ll start building exponentially more muscle is futile.

Re-feeding after fasting, especially on carbohydrates, raises the thermic effect of food, which produces excess body heat and can lead to a positive result in body composition.

Part of the reason why cholesterol helps with muscle growth may have to do with the antioxidant properties of cholesterol and the repair mechanisms it triggers. Cholesterol improves membrane stability of cells which enhances their resiliency against muscle damage during exercise. This also controls inflammation during recovery. Cholesterol supports mTOR and IGF-1 signaling by helping with the formation of signaling pathways.

Chapter Ten: Food Fallacy

Enter the Lipid Hypothesis

The Seven Countries Study, as it was called, recruited 12,763 men, 40-59 years of age, living in the United States, Finland, the Netherlands, Greece, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Japan, with a follow-up from 1958-1964. Results showed that the risk of heart attack and stroke were directly correlated with the total level of serum cholesterol, blood pressure, and obesity.

The Lipid Hypothesis postulates that the main cause of heart disease are saturated fat and cholesterol that cause clogging of the arteries or atherosclerosis, which eventually will lead to a stroke or a heart attack.

Instead, inspired by the findings of Ancel Keys and other similar researchers, the public dietary guidelines shifted more towards promoting whole wheat grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, low-fat dairy, lean cuts of meat, egg substitutes, juices, and many other processed foods. Over the course of the following decades, the situation didn’t get any better as the obesity epidemic actually got even worse after the introduction of the diet heart hypothesis. There are more people with diabetes, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular events than ever before.

On August 2017, True Health Initiative pointed out many of Keys’ inaccuracies in the Seven Countries Study. They refuted 4 false ideas:

(1) the countries were selected to fit the expected outcome

(2) France was intentionally excluded as to avoid the French Paradox

(3) the data from Greece was taken during Lent, which created discrepancies

(4) sugar or carbohydrates were not considered as a possible contributor to heart disease.

Cholesterol is an organic molecule produced by all animal cells. It’s an essential component of cell membrane and helps with its functioning. It’s also a steroid hormone that promotes hormone, bile, and vitamin D synthesis. Because of its molecular substance, cholesterol doesn’t mix with blood and it’s carried around the body by lipoproteins. There are different types of them:

• Very Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) – VLDL delivers triglycerides and cholesterol throughout the body to be stripped off from energy or for storage.
• Intermediate Density Lipoprotein (IDL) – IDL helps the transport of cholesterol and fats but its density is between that of LDL and VLDL.
• Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) – LDL carries energy through the bloodstream and directs nutrients into the cells.
• High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) – HDL collects unused cholesterol from the blood and brings it back to the liver for recycling.

The amount of cholesterol in your blood is irrelevant to how it affects atherosclerosis and risk of heart disease because the build-up of plaque in the arteries is mostly driven by inflammation. If you suffer from higher inflammation and oxidative stress, then you’ll also have more free radicals in the blood which can oxidize LDL.

Free radicals and high inflammation damage the endothelium, which the cholesterol then gets stuck to. This leads to the accumulation of plaques and increased risk of heart disease. Additionally, higher VLDL is considered a better predictor of heart disease risk than LDL.

Most of the cholesterol you eat gets esterified and is poorly absorbed. In the short term, cholesterol levels will rise as fats are being distributed around. The body also reduces its own cholesterol synthesis when you consume it from food. Therefore, eating more cholesterol will not raise your cholesterol in the long run. When you look at the mechanism of cholesterol transportation, then higher cholesterol in your blood also means that you’re burning more fat for fuel as well. The body uses very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) to transport fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins around the bloodstream to either burn them off for energy or use in other cellular processes. Once the delivery has occurred, VLDL remodels itself into LDL.

Basically, if you’re using more fat for fuel, then you’ll by mechanism have higher fatty acids in the blood. Cholesterol just happens to be along for the ride.

Here are the current cholesterol ranges in conventional medicine:

• Total Cholesterol – 200 mg/dl (5 mmol/L) or less. However, it’s mostly irrelevant because of not really giving enough detail about HDL and LDL etc.
• Triglycerides – 150 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/L) or less. That’s a good guestimate because you would expect triglycerides to go down when eating fewer carbs and burning more fat for energy.
• HDL Cholesterol – 40 mg/dl (1.0 mmol/L) or more. More HDL tends to be better and if you’re eating a healthy diet, you should see HDL to be actually higher at about 50-60 mg/dl.
• LDL Cholesterol – 100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/L) or less. However, based on new research on low carb ketogenic diets, the amount of LDL for optimal health can vary greatly between people and is determined by many other things.

If your triglycerides are low and HDL is high, then it means you’re using up those fatty acids. A higher LDL, in that case, isn’t that relevant. Inflammation or C-Reactive Protein (CRP) would then also have to be low.

If your triglycerides are high and you have high CRP, then a higher LDL and total cholesterol aren’t good because you’ll have more inflammation, which will create more scarring of arteries, which then can promote plaque formation.

Some people, around 20%, have a genetic variation that makes them absorb or synthesize so much cholesterol that their diet does influence their blood cholesterol level. Even in these hyper-responders, however, a high cholesterol diet does not generally negatively influence their cholesterol profile.

You can make the argument that high cholesterol leads to atherosclerosis because the plaques are created by cholesterol build-up. However, the root cause of the issue is inflammation and arterial scarring in the first place. If you’d have lower C-reactive protein, then cholesterol would simply be transported around the body by VLDL and if it’s not needed for nutrition, it’d be transited back to the liver by HDL.

The problem with going on a low-fat low-cholesterol diet is that your body would still keep producing its own cholesterol. Arguably you’d be making more of it because of not getting it from food. In fact, a lot of people suffer from low levels of HDL cholesterol, which prevents their body from clearing out cholesterol from the blood. Most Americans don’t have enough HDL to decrease their risk of cardiovascular disease. Crazy enough, low cholesterol levels are actually associated with increased mortality from stroke and heart disease.

Low Carbohydrate ketogenic diets with less than 50 g of carbs a day have been found to be better for long-term cardiovascular risk factor management compared to low-fat diets with less than 30% of calories coming from fat. They can also raise HDL 4x times as much as a low-fat diet. Long-term ketogenic diets reduce body weight, decrease triglycerides, lower LDL and blood glucose, and increase HDL cholesterol without any side-effects.

The Standard American Diet

• Trans Fats and Vegetable Oils
• High Fructose Corn Syrup
• Artificial Sweeteners
• GMO Foods and Pesticides
• Refined Carbohydrates and Sugar
• Processed Grains and Wheat

Vegetable oils are extracted from various seeds, such as rapeseed (canola oil), soybean, corn, sunflower, peanut, and safflower. To get the oil from these plants, they have to be extracted through processing and heat, which damages their fatty acid composition.

These “heart healthy” vegetable oils are heated at unnaturally high temperatures, which makes the fats oxidize and go rancid. Oxidized fats accelerate aging, promote inflammation and damage the cells of your body when consumed. In addition to that, before the oils get put onto store shelves, they get processed even more with different acids and solvents to improve the composition of the product. As a bonus, they get deodorized and mixed with chemical colorings to mask the horrible residue of the processing process. If you take it a step further and hydrogenizes the vegetable oil, then it will eventually become more solid and intact.

A Medical Research Council survey showed that men eating butter ran half the risk of developing heart disease as those using margarine. Consumption of trans fats has been linked to obesity, metabolic syndrome, increased oxidative stress, heart disease, cancer, and Alzheimer’s.

It’s not the saturated fat or cholesterol that is driving atherosclerosis but it’s mainly caused by inflammation and sugar that’s making the arteries become inflamed in the first place. Cholesterol is just going there to do its job and tries to heal the injuries but if you keep causing damage to the blood vessels it doesn’t matter how little cholesterol you eat from your diet as your body will still manufacture it from within.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids are an integral part of cell membrane and they regulate many other hormonal processes. They have great anti-inflammatory benefits that protect against heart disease, eczema, arthritis, and cancer. Omega-3s are polyunsaturated fatty acids, which refers to their multiple unsaturated double bonds. Great sources of omega-3s are salmon, grass-fed beef, sardines, krill oil, algae, and some nuts.

There are 3 types of omega-3s:

• EPA (EicosaPentaenoic Acid) and DHA (DocosaHexaenoic Acid) are animal sourced long chain omega-3 fats both essential for the nervous system, brain, and general health. They’re found especially in seafood.
• ALA (Alpha Linolenic Acid) is mostly a plant-based short chain omega-3 fatty acid. Most animals, including humans, can’t directly use ALA so it gets converted into DHA first. Humans can convert only about 8% of ALA into DHA, which is why animal foods like salmon and oysters are much better sources of omega-3s and DHA.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids are also essential polyunsaturated fats. They differ from omega-3s by having 6 carbon atoms at the last double bond instead of 3. Omega-6s are primarily used for energy and they have to be derived from diet. Unfortunately, most people are getting too many omega-6s. The most common omega-6 is linolenic acid (LA). Another omega-6 is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) with some health benefits. Vegetable oils, processed foods, salad dressings, and some nuts are the highest sources of omega-6 fatty acids.

Omega-9 Fatty acids are monounsaturated fats with a single double bond. These ones aren’t necessarily essential as the body can produce its own. In fact, omega-9s are the most abundant fats in cells. They’ve been found to lower triglycerides and VLDL as well as improve insulin sensitivity. You can get omega-9s from olive oil, and some nuts.

To keep your omega-3 to omega-6 ratios in balance without obsessing over them, eliminate all processed vegetable oils, avoid high-temperature cooking of oils and fats, eat plenty of grass-fed meat, get pastured eggs, mercury-free fish that’s not fed grains and avoid packaged foods. You’d also want to be careful with supplementing fish oil. It’s true that the omega-3s from fish oil supplements can help to lower inflammation but they’re also quite high in polyunsaturated fats and thus easily oxidized. Most of the commercial fish oil supplements out there have been exposed to some heat, sunlight or have simply gone rancid. This actually makes them pro-inflammatory if you take them consistently. Instead, you should focus on eliminating the inflammatory vegetable oils and eat some wild oily fish.

Coconut oil and olive oil that have been used for centuries, however, don’t require nearly as much processing. These fats get extracted by pressing whole olives or dried coconut kernels and then they get bottled. This doesn’t include processing at high heat or exposure to different chemicals. Olive oil and coconut oil are much more vulnerable to temperature and they can go rancid more easily, which illustrates their natural manufacturing ways. Their fatty acid content and ratios are also more favorable for your health.

Saturated Fat

Dr. Weston Price found that saturated fat, such as butter, cream, lard, tallow, bone marrow etc., was a staple in the diets of these very healthy natives. There’s a huge discrepancy with the research done in Western countries where butter is seen so bad that its fat content has to be reduced and swapped out with vegetable oils instead.

Butter actually has many antioxidants, such as vitamin A and vitamin E, that protect against the free radical damage that inflames the arteries. It also contains selenium, which is another important antioxidant and mineral. The short chain fatty acids of butter, like butyrate, heal the intestinal lining of your gut that prevents inflammation and autoimmune disorders. Medium-chain, as well as short-chain fatty acids, have strong anti-tumor properties.

When Price was doing his research, he described a “vitamin-like activator” that played a central role in the utilization of minerals, vitamins, growth, and protection against heart disease. He called it Activator X, which he found in the butterfat, organs, and fat of animals who consumed green grass, and also in some fish and eggs. Unfortunately, Price died before knowing what this mysterious compound really was. Nowadays we know that Activator X is Vitamin K2, which is a fat-soluble vitamin produced by animal tissues from Vitamin K1.

• Vitamin K1 is mostly found in plant foods and greens. It supports blood clotting and healing.
• Vitamin K2 is divided into many specific forms called menaquinones (MK), ranging from MK-4 and MK-7 etc.
  • MK-4 is found the most in animal foods and it protects tissues against calcium formation and cancer development. It also supports hormones
  • MK-7, MK-8, and MK-9 are mostly found in fermented foods like sauerkraut and miso. They support bone health and hormones much more effectively than K1

K2 is important for mineral absorption and general health. In the context of atherosclerosis, Vitamin K2 also directs calcium into the right place, namely the bones and teeth, instead of keeping it in the bloodstream to cause plaque formation. Vitamin K2 works synergistically with two other fat-soluble activators Vitamin A and D. Vitamin A and D signal the cells to produce certain proteins and vitamin K then activates them. Other minerals such as zinc and magnesium, as well as dietary fat, are needed for the absorption of these fat-soluble vitamins.

Based on current research, you’d want to get at least 100 mcg-s of K2 a day and aim up to 150-200 mcg-s in total. Although humans can convert some K1 into K2, the biggest effect comes from MK-4 utilization, which is most bioavailable in animal foods. Nevertheless, you’d want to be eating foods high in both to cover your basis. Given you don’t need that much K1 from vegetables and K2 is much more difficult to come by, here is a list of foods richest in Vitamin K2, starting with the highest:

• Natto is a Japanese fermented soybean dish with a foul smell. It’s the richest sources of vitamin K2 with a whopping 1103.4 micrograms of Vitamin K2 MK-7 in 100 grams.
• Goose Liver Paste – a pateé type of cream used a lot in French cooking and similar cultures. It’s an easy way of making organ meats more palatable and tastier. MK-4 content 369 mcg/100g.
• Hard Cheeses – cheese should be fermented and unpasteurized for the greatest health benefits. A lot of the vitamins and minerals get lost during processing. MK-7 content 76.3 mcg/100g.
• Soft Cheeses (Brie) – maybe one of the reasons the French didn’t get atherosclerosis had to do with the K2 rich cheeses and pateés that protected them against plaque formation. MK-7 content 56.5 mcg/100g.
• Egg Yolks – specifically the cholesterol-rich egg yolks which where the entire egg gets its nutritional value from. MK-4 content 32 mcg/100g.
• Dark Poultry – meat that’s darker in color such as goose and duck. Much richer in vitamins than white chicken. MK-4 content 31 mcg/100g.
• Butter – MK-4 content 15 mcg/100g.
• Liver and Organ Meats – probably the most nutrient dense foods on the planet are liver, heart, and other organ meats. One of the best sources of dietary vitamin A and D, which are essential for vitamin K utilization. MK-4 content 14 mcg/100g.
• Sauerkraut and Fermented Foods – another form of bioavailable vitamin K1 as well as K2. Paradoxically, the K2 and B vitamin content of fermented foods comes from the live bacteria in them, not the cabbage itself. So, sauerkraut is still actually an animal-based food. MK-7 content 5 mcg/100g.
• Raw Milk and Kefir – more unprocessed food that’s rich in vitamins and some live bacteria. Pasteurized milk just kills all the juice, figuratively speaking. MK-4 content 2 mcg/100g.

Consuming trans fats blocks the actions of Vitamin K2, which would make everything even worse regards to arterial health and inflammation. The reality is that it’s not the butter that’s causing heart problems – it’s the bread that you’re spreading it on. Even worse, if you’re making fried toast with eggs and oil, then you’re literally driving up inflammation through the roof. With a few minor adjustments, such as not using oxidized oils or avoiding the gluten-heavy grains, butter would be one of the healthiest fats in your diet.

Meat Kills?

Eating processed meat such as hot dogs and burgers increases risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. Those meats include many other ingredients such as sugar, chemicals, as well as the gluten-laden wheat bun it’s consumed with. People who eat processed meat tend to follow other poor lifestyle habits, such as not exercising enough, over-eating calories, too much stress, not enough sleep, etc.

Those who eat more red meat also have a tendency to smoke, drink, eat fewer vegetables, and engage in other unhealthy behaviors that increase their risk of cancer.

People who follow a vegan diet already are simply more mindful of their health if they’ve taken the dietary path they’ve chosen. Likewise, a person eating meat and fat can be equally as healthy if they pay attention to these things. Studies that compare vegetarians and omnivores with the general population see both groups living longer than the average person.

Meat is high in protein and eating too much protein is thought to cause kidney disease. Kidneys excrete nitrogen by-products from digesting protein, thus too much protein over-taxes the kidneys. High protein diets may be harmful to those who already have kidney disease but there’s no evidence they damage healthy individuals.

Neither nitrate or nitrites get accumulated in the body. Nitrates from food get converted into nitrites after coming into contact with our saliva. About 25% of the nitrate we eat gets converted into salivary nitrite, 20% gets converted into nitrite, and the rest gets excreted in the urine within 5 hours of ingestion. Studies show no association between nitrites in diet and stomach cancer. What’s more, nitrates may also help boost the immune system and protect against pathogenic bacteria, which is why arugula is a good ingredient to add to your diet.

Chapter Eleven: The Case Against Sugar (and Fat)

Combining protein with carbohydrates spikes insulin and makes the entire meal more insulinogenic. Furthermore, you can promote oxidative stress in the body by consuming oxidized fats and cholesterol or if you end up glycating them with glucose.

Any diet you follow, whether that be Paleo, vegan, keto, SAD, or omni-lacto-vege-pescetarian, can be equally as unhealthy and dangerous if you fail to understand the underlying metabolic reactions that occur. What foods you eat, what ingredients you combine them with, when you consume them, how much, at what frequency, your methylation status, and overall biomarkers will determine the final nutritional result. It doesn’t matter what diet you’re on. What matters is how you choose to manipulate nutrient signaling, hormonal profile, and meal timing.

Insulin is the main regulator of energy storage and body weight homeostasis. It promotes weight gain but also makes you become hungrier and more eager to eat. Whenever your glucose drops you want to eat again to prevent hypoglycemia. If a person eats a low-fat high carb diet, then that’s going to end up with another rise in insulin, keeping them in a state of chronically elevated insulin (hyperinsulinemia). High meal frequency is as bad as high carb intake both because of hyperinsulinemia and no opportunity to enter autophagy.

The reason excess cortisol makes you fat has to do with high blood glucose and elevated insulin. If you’re stressed out or have entered the ‘fight or flight mode’, you’re more prone to store fat because of shutting down digestion and raising insulin. The body wants to supply its muscles to run away from danger and fat loss becomes a secondary goal.

Chronic stress promotes chronically high blood sugar and hyperinsulinemia. We also know that insulin resistance walks hand in hand with leptin resistance, that makes the brain desensitized towards satiety signals from food. This is often accompanied by emotional binge-eating, stubborn fat loss plateaus, and less satiety signaling.

Only after the introduction of processed foods from the West do traditional diets become fattening. This you can see happening in China and India who traditionally eat more carbohydrates but now get access to different indulgences and more added sugars.

Insulin Resistance

Symptoms of insulin resistance or glucose intolerance include uncontrollable hunger, increased thirst, high blood sugar, high blood pressure, brain fog, lethargy, lightheadedness, easy weight gain around the stomach, stubborn belly fat, elevated triglyceride and cholesterol levels.

You don’t want to ever combine high-carb foods with high amounts of fatty acids because it’ll not only increase insulin much higher but also promotes more inflammation, oxidative stress, and metabolic disorders.

Low carb diets, avoiding processed sugar, and prolonged fasting have been found to be very effective in healing the pancreas and reversing insulin resistance.

• Carbohydrate restriction helps with everything that causes metabolic syndrome, such as high blood sugar, weight gain, elevated insulin, and hypertension.
• Diabetics who ate a normal diet were put on a ketogenic one for 2 weeks and they lowered their triglycerides by 35%, dropped total cholesterol by 10%, ate 30% fewer calories, dropped 4 pounds and improved their insulin sensitivity by 75%.
• Compared to a low carb ketogenic diet, a low-fat diet for four weeks has been seen to raise fasting glucose and insulin.
• Ketogenic diets have been shown to be very effective at losing body fat in dozens of studies.
• Beta-Hydroxybutyrate (BHB) has been found to inhibit histone deacetylases (HDACs) which lowers blood glucose and decreases insulin resistance

However, going very low carb for too long may cause peripheral insulin resistance. If you’re not eating that many carbs, then you don’t need extra insulin either. Decreased insulin signaling itself is still a good thing for increased longevity and the insulin resistance induced by carbohydrate restriction is an adaptive mechanism.

Here are more ways of protecting yourself against insulin resistance:

• Exercise – Working out and physical activity is one of the biggest determining factors to how insulin sensitive you are. The main cause is thought to be muscle contractions causing the glucose receptor GLUT4 to translocate to the membrane. GLUT4 can improve the uptake of glucose through a distinct mechanism that of insulin. This will lower blood glucose and insulin, preventing hyperinsulinemia.
• Get Enough Sleep – Sleep deprivation has been shown to trigger insulin resistance in healthy subjects. Even just a single night of not enough sleep makes you borderline pre-diabetic in the short term. After a bad night’s sleep, your glucose tolerance for the next day is going to be drastically lower.
• Avoid Smoking – Smoking also induces insulin resistance and causes atherosclerosis. It’s causing similar damage to the arteries as does excess glucose in the bloodstream. Eating low carb high fat while still smoking is as bad as eating junk food.
• Lower Your Stress – Chronic stress and cortisol are known to raise blood sugar, blood pressure and insulin, which over the long term will definitely lead to insulin resistance. Cortisol impairs the uptake of glucose by reducing the translocation of glucose transporters such as GLUT4. It also keeps that stubborn visceral fat around your belly. Mindfulness-based stress-reducing activities like meditation and yoga have been shown to improve insulin resistance.
• Get Enough Sunshine – Vitamin D deficiencies are associated with insulin resistance. It’s an essential steroid hormone that influences every cell in your body, including insulin secretion. Vitamin D is also important for protecting against heart disease. The best way to synthesize vitamin D would be to get it straight from the sun but taking a D3 supplement can also be helpful.
• Lower Inflammation – In rats, insulin resistance can be alleviated by fish oil supplementation. This may be partly due to the anti-inflammatory properties of omega-3s that help to fight the inflammation caused by sugar.

Advanced Glycation End-Products (AGEs) are compounds that get formed when sugar molecules react with proteins or fats. AGEs are related to accelerated aging, diabetes, increased inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. AGEs can also interfere with insulin signaling by decreasing insulin secretion, thus promoting insulin resistance.

Inflammation from food and AGE formation creates oxidative stress, which increases gut permeability as well. ‘Leaky Gut,’ allows bacteria, undigested food particles, and unmetabolized toxins to enter the bloodstream and inflame different tissues of the body and lead to obesity.

When it comes to other foods, cooking and processing food in general increases the number of AGEs and other free radicals, such as heterocyclic amines (HAs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). HAs and PAHs get formed when you cook, grill, fry, or smoke food at high heat. That’s why it’s never a good idea to char your bacon or let the vegetables turn too crispy – it causes glycation that’s bad for your skin and long-term health.

One study found that omnivores tend to have higher dietary AGE intake than vegetarians, but vegetarians actually end up with higher AGE concentrations in their plasma. The authors figured that this was due to the increased fructose intake of vegetarian diets, which induces oxidative stress to the liver. Leafy vegetables also have a lot of PAHs, comparable to the levels in smoked meat even.

The bottom line is this: keep your insulin and blood sugar low most of the time and stimulate mTOR at times you’d benefit from being more anabolic. Then cycle in between periods of being predominantly ketogenic with occasional refeeds and insulin signaling. That’s how you’ll prevent any dysfunctional insulin resistance or inflammation.

The Case Against Fat

Eating any kind of food, whether that be carbs, protein, or fat, will be significantly more obesogenic with high cortisol. Cortisol will inhibit digestion, release glycogen, raise blood sugar, and spike insulin. That’s why even a “healthy ketogenic low carb high-fat meal” can be damaging to you in the long-term. What’s more, cholesterol and other dietary fats are more prone to become oxidized if you consume them with high cortisol and insulin. Therefore, the underlying issue isn’t as much carbohydrates or fats but more like stress-induced inflammation and hyperinsulinemia.

Daytime favors better glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity because the body’s metabolic processes are supposed to be more active whereas at nighttime the opposite is true. Blue light exposure from artificial light sources at night is shown to promote insulin resistance, weight gain, and diabetes. The reason has to do with increased cortisol induced by the highly stimulating wavelengths of most blue light sources.

Other factors that determine insulin release include dietary fiber, protein, fermentation, the addition of vinegar, the thermic effect from spices, gut receptors, consistency and satiety signaling.

DON’T COMBINE CARBS WITH FAT! It’s going to result in much higher insulin response and AGE formation than if you were to eat that fat or protein in a low carb meal.

Some people are also less suited to be consuming saturated fat. This is determined by a specific gene called APOE, which has 3 types (APOE2, APOE3, APOE4). The specific APOE gene we have instructs our body on how to make apolipoprotein E, which combines fatty acids to create lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are used to transport triglycerides and cholesterol around the blood. If you have predominantly APOE4 genes, then you’re going to do worse with increased saturated fat and cholesterol intake. Instead, you’d want to be consuming more monounsaturated fats. APOE4 carriers are said to be at a 20% increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease as well. Having APOE2 makes you more suited for a low carb high-fat diet and APOE3 is suitable for both types of diets.

Additional factors to consider:

• Don’t Combine Fats and Carbs – The single most important thing for your nutrition. Both a low carb as well as a high carb diet can be equally good and bad, depending on the situation. You can be healthy and live long on both diets if you keep the macronutrients separate.
• Don’t Be Stressed Out – Cortisol will still make you gain weight and raise insulin. In fact, eating a keto diet with chronic stress can be as detrimental as eating fast food because you’ll oxidize the fats and cholesterol with elevated blood sugar. 
• Avoid Inflammation – Whether that be from processed food, charred meat, oxidized oils, trans fats, or the AGE formation of eating carbs and fats together. 
• Eat Whole Foods – Processed food promotes obesity for a reason – it’s easier to overconsume and it’s less satiating. You may accidentally end up with eating more calories than you need, which is another driver of insulin resistance and fat storage.

The general principles of metabolic autophagy will still apply to any nutrition plan – eat a lot of plants and vegetables for the polyphenols and antioxidants, don’t eat too much meat and protein because of the mTOR stimulation, practice daily fasting with minimal eating frequency, stay low carb most of the time and then cycle with carb refeeds.

Chapter Twelve: WTF Should I Eat

What Humans Evolved to Eat

Australopithecines and Homo habilis, appeared around 4 million years ago and their diets included primarily plants but also a lot of meat. Basically, they were scavengers who ate fruit, tubers, and small game with occasional remains of large animals. According to the Expansive Tissue Hypothesis posed by the anthropologists Leslie Aiello and Peter Wheeler, the metabolic requirements of large human brains were offset by a corresponding reduction of the gut. As our stomachs got smaller, our neocortices got larger. This was made possible by getting more calories from less food and not having to spend that much time searching for it.

Around one million years ago, Homo Erectus appeared on the scene and learned the ability to hunt big game. His life was primarily centered around hunting, which led to the development of anatomically modern humans about 200,000 years ago. Cro-Magnon man was compelled to inhabit many unpopulated regions of the world thanks to a meat-based diet. The disappearance of most large animals such as the mammoth, wild ox etc. wasn’t because of climate change but due to people hunting them to extinction.

Homo Sapiens has been around for hundreds and thousands of years. Over 90% of that time has been spent hunting and gathering. The agricultural revolution happened about 10,000 years ago and is such a new introduction to our evolutionary lineage. Before modern agriculture and industrially processed food, we ate primarily a moderate-to-low carb, high fat, high protein diet with a very high nutrient density and plenty of fiber. Even when humans turned to agriculture, a large proportion of the crops was fed to the cattle for rearing their meat. There hasn’t been any 100% vegan aboriginal or even agricultural society because animal foods are much more nutrient dense than just plants. They provide all the essential amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and fats needed for sustaining life. Even vegetarian societies incorporate some dairy or animal fats to cover their essential nutrients.

In the summer and early autumn, foragers would’ve been exposed to more carbohydrates from fruit, berries, and vegetables. During winter they’d be eating more animal foods like meat, fish, fats, and very little plants. These cycles would replicate the cycling of anabolism and catabolism as seen in nature.

A 2000 publication found that on average, the macronutrient ratios of hunting and gathering tribes fall somewhere between 19-35% protein, 22-40% carbs, and 28-58% fat. These numbers may vary hugely because certain populations have access to different types of wild game and vegetables. Naturally, an equatorial society is going to be consuming a lot more fruit and tubers, whereas an arctic one has to primarily focus on fats and meat.

• The Kitavans of Papua New Guinea eat a very carb-rich diet with tubers, yams, fruit, coconuts, and fish. No dairy, no grains, no oils, no sugar, no alcohol, or other beverages. In contrast to the Western diet, they have virtually no cases of diabetes, obesity or stroke. There are other high-carb tribes like the Hadza of Tanzania, and the Bantu in Africa who are equally as healthy. 
• The Inuit in the arctic climate consume primarily caribou, seal meat, wild salmon, whale blubber, and very few berries. Their diet is high protein, high fat, and low carb but they’re not fully in ketosis because of a genetic disorder.
• Other animal-based bands are the Masai in Africa, who eat primarily cattle, drink milk and cow’s blood. The Hadza also get a lot of their calories from meat during certain seasons as do the Hiwi in South America.

The Natural Diet Fallacy

What’s natural to eat may not always be the best for you:

• Poisonous berries, mushrooms, and leaves are growing in the forest but they’re lethal in high doses. Likewise, certain compounds in grains, beans, and vegetables actually cause a lot of digestive issues and inflammation when eaten in excess. 
• Some “unnatural” foods such as MCT oil or olive oil can be healthy for you. You have to change the composition of the fruit from its original form into a processed one but these are one of the healthiest fats for you if you consume them in moderation.
• Even though most modern humans evolved on a meat-based diet, it doesn’t mean that it’s most optimal for longevity. Even though hunter-gatherers are devoid of nutritional diseases and degeneration, they don’t exhibit exponentially long life-spans either. Partly due to the harsh living conditions of their environment but I believe the aspect of constant mTOR stimulation and not enough deliberate autophagy may play a role in this. In the contemporary setting, high eating frequency combined with a lot of meat probably isn’t good for your health.
• Eating high amounts of fruit and honey during certain seasons as hunter-gatherers do isn’t ideal for metabolic health and longevity either. They deliberately gorge themselves on sugar and carbs as to gain fat for the coming winter. However, that also induces mild-insulin resistance in the short-term. This kind of behavior on a habitual basis isn’t probably optimal for increasing life-span because of the insulin signaling. In the modern world, we don’t have such selective pressures from the environment and we have access to more food year-round. 

The Plant Paradox

Because plants can’t run away from predators the same way animals can, they protect themselves by producing toxic chemicals and compounds. One of the most common plant antinutrients are lectins, which are sticky proteins that attach onto other food molecules and cause inflammation. This can lead to leaky gut syndrome, brain fog, autoimmune disorders, weight gain, and other inflammatory conditions. They can even contribute to atherosclerosis due to intestinal permeability and arterial damage.

Lectins can be found in seeds like sunflower, cashews, peanuts, beans, legumes, grains, such as wheat, barley, oats (gluten is a lectin), nightshades, like tomatoes, eggplants, cucumbers, peppers, potatoes.

FODMAPs are another food group that may cause digestive issues. It stands for “Fermentable Oligo, Di, Monosaccharides and Polyols,” which are short-chain carbohydrates that don’t get absorbed by the small intestine very well. They can cause bloating, autoimmune conditions, irritable bowel syndrome, and leaky gut. FODMAP foods aren’t the cause of these issues but a low-FODMAP diet can help to improve the symptoms. FODMAP foods include wheat, rye, barley, onion, garlic, artichokes, cabbage, beans, lentils, tofu, tempeh, and some fruits like apples, apricots, avocados, cherries, plums, and chicory.

You shouldn’t avoid all lectins and plant phytonutrients for the rest of your life though because that can create another situation of hypersensitivity to them. Hunter-gatherers would also forage a lot of wild plants and other edibles that had some medicinal benefits despite their toxicity. That’s why you do want to eat the other vegetables like cruciferous and then have the questionable ones less often. Different culinary techniques like sprouting, soaking, fermenting, and plain simple cooking can also reduce the number of lectins in them.

People in the modern world have simply become way too soft and domesticated that they can’t handle even just a little bit of digestive strain. The perfect example is antibiotic resistance and lack of microbial diversity in the gut. Children who aren’t exposed to bacteria from dirt, animals, grains, and other sources are much more likely to develop autoimmune disorders later in life. In fact, C-section newborns are more prone to suffer from all chronic diseases. Another reason to get your hands dirty every once in a while.

Of course, there are a lot of exceptions to the rule. You definitely shouldn’t eat raw beans or legumes because they can actually be dangerous. Likewise, there are a lot of lethal berries and plants. Someone who’s already suffering from autoimmune disorders or inflammatory disease should also not treat themselves with hormesis.

Essential Nutrients

In humans, there are 9 amino acids, 2 fatty acids, 13 vitamins, and 15 minerals that are considered essential nutrients:

• The minimum daily protein requirements are 0.8g/kg or 0.36g/lb of bodyweight, which for an average adult who weighs around 100- 200 pounds is roughly 40-80 grams of protein. However, that’s for covering your bare nitrogen balance and not optimal. For muscle growth and healthy aging, you definitely need more than that. Higher than minimal protein intake has many benefits, such as increased preservation of lean body mass and weight loss. Out of the 20 amino acids, 9 cannot be synthesized by the body itself and thus need to be obtained from diet. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.
• Daily dietary fat intake is suggested to be around 15%, including 2.5% as Linoleic Acid (LA) and 0.5% as Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA). Reference intake value for LA is said to be 10g and for ALA 2g, which on a 2000 calorie diet can be covered with about 20-30 grams of dietary fat. DHA and EPA are conditionally essential for development and growth, which practically makes them essential. Although LA and ALA can be converted into DHA, it’s not that effective of a process. It’s recommended to get a minimum of 250- 500 mg-s combined EPA and DHA per day.
• Essential vitamins are Vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Vitamin K, and Choline.
• Essential minerals for humans are Calcium, Cobalt, Chloride, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Magnesium, Manganese, Molybdenum, Phosphorus, Potassium, Selenium, Sodium, and Zinc.

Non-essential nutrients are not necessary for survival and they can either have a beneficial or a toxic effect:

• Carbohydrates and glucose aren’t essential because the body can shift into ketosis and use ketones instead. The brain and other vital organs do need a very minuscule amount of glucose for optimal functioning even after becoming keto-adapted. However, as we’ve mentioned before, the process of gluconeogenesis can create that glucose from dietary fat and protein intake so carbs aren’t needed. Nevertheless, this may not be optimal all the time, which is why we’ll be using a more cyclical approach.
• Dietary fiber isn’t essential because humans can’t digest it. The emphasis on eating a lot of fiber comes from the idea that it helps with bowel movements, feeds the gut bacteria, and lowers cholesterol. Even though fiber isn’t essential, it’s still advisable to eat some vegetables, especially cruciferous and sprouts for the sulforaphane and anti-cancer benefits. Fiber’s not meant to be digested by us, but by our microbiome. When the bacteria in our gut eat fiber, they produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), such as butyrate, which will heal the intestinal lining. However, too much fiber and vegetables can cause digestive issues, bloating, and constipation, which is why you want to aim for a minimal effective dose. Fortunately, butyrate can be gained from animal fats as well, such as butter, tallow, and meat but to get the other pre-biotic SCFAs you’d want to eat some plants as well.
• Phytochemicals and phytonutrients are non-nutritional parts of plants. They’re not essential for survival in humans but they help the plants survive harsh conditions and protect against predation. However, those same compounds can have a beneficial hormetic effect by making our own bodies more resilient. Different polyphenols, flavonoids, resveratrol, lignans, and catechins have all been shown to have great benefits on longevity and metabolic disorders. However, what makes a poison deadly is the dose. 
• Alcohol is a non-essential non-nutrient that still has calories. It means the body can’t get any nutritional value from alcohol other than the empty calories. Now, the hormetic effect is something you may benefit from as certain spirits can fight off infections and promote ketone production even. However, the dose is probably quite small and you shouldn’t be drinking every day. You definitely don’t want to get hammered or even seriously intoxicated because you’ll do more damage than good. Instead, one shot of vodka or a glass of red wine a few times per week is probably the minimal effective dose. Different kinds of vinegar also have small amounts of acetic acid and alcohol but they’re great for blood sugar control and insulin regulation.

Vitamin requirements are highly specific to the individual and their lifestyle. There’s some evidence showing that the need for vitamin C increases only in diets of glucose-based metabolism. In fact, ascorbic acid and glucose compete for cellular transport. High levels of blood glucose inhibit the uptake of vitamin C because both of them use the same membrane transport chain and because glucose is a much more prioritized nutrient.

Also, the required intake of sodium will also fluctuate depending on your levels of physical activity, blood pressure levels, hydration levels, and what phase of the diet you’re at.

Nutrient Density

It’s thought that humans prioritize protein when regulating food intake. This is called The Protein Leverage Hypothesis, which is the idea that satiety is mostly regulated by protein. You eat until you get sufficient protein, which in the majority of cases falls somewhere between 20-30% of total calories. Most processed foods and ingredients are low in protein, high in carbs, high in fat, and engineered to increase palatability.

However, the protein leverage hypothesis has a few flaws because you can eat a lot more protein than your body needs and still stay hungry. The term ‘Rabbit Starvation’ describes a situation wherein a person in the wild would starve to death if they only ate lean proteins such as rabbits, very lean game, or just chicken breast without enough fat for calories. This would lead the body becoming malnourished and cannibalize itself.

It turns out that the most satiating foods were potatoes (unless cooked in oil), porridge, fish, red meat, and some fruit. The lowest satiety factor was on hyper-palatable foods like cake, donuts, chocolate, bread, pasta, cookies etc.

Your taste buds tend to tolerate only a certain amount of a single type of sensory stimulation, which then makes you feel satiated. However, if you introduce another kind of taste into the mix while eating, then you’ll regain the desire to eat because it provides a novel sensory experience.

It’s never a good idea to combine a bunch of different food groups for the sake of digestion either. In order to digest what you eat, the gut needs to release certain digestive enzymes and a certain amount of stomach acid to break it down. By eating things with conflictive interests, you’re at least hindering your full potential for easier assimilation.

Principles of Food Combining:

• Don’t Combine Fats and Carbs – It will hijack your sensory satiety and is also dangerous to your health. Eating calorie-dense foods with high insulin makes it easier to store the food as fat and induce insulin resistance.
• Combining Starch and Meat – Starchy foods like potatoes and rice require different enzymes and acidity than meat. Combining them together may cause some conflict of interest in the gut. The body will prioritize one or the other but, in both cases, the other food that’s left out can begin to ferment in the gut if it stays there for too long. Starch and protein also spike insulin much higher. If you’re eating once a day it might not be that big of an issue as there isn’t much food in the stomach already. However, for optimal results, you want to eat meat with vegetables and starch with something easier to digest like fish or other plant-based proteins.
• Don’t Combine Fruit with Anything – The simple sugars of fruit don’t require much digestion and they get stored as liver glycogen. If you do eat fruit, then you should do it on an empty stomach with empty glycogen. Eating fruit after a meal makes it easier to store it as fat and become fermented in the gut. 
• Don’t Drink Your Calories – If you’re drinking juices, shakes, meal replacements etc. then you’re not really feeling that satiated afterwards. It’s better to limit liquid calories because it’ll bump up your daily calories while limiting satiety. The only exception might be like a green juice powder or some protein shake every once in a while.
• Get Enough Fat-Soluble Vitamins and Protein – In order to feel satiated with fewer calories, you should focus on whole foods with fat-soluble vitamins and essential amino acids. This prevents cravings and binging. The best foods for that are meat, fish, eggs, and organ meats.
• Promote Acidity When Eating Protein – To digest proteins and meats, you want to have higher acidity in the gut. This will help to break down the food and promotes digestion. That’s why combining meat with starch can also cause further issues – one promotes alkalinity and the other wants acidity. To promote hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the gut, drink a little bit of apple cider vinegar before eating, add it to your food, or take some digestive enzymes.
• Don’t Drink While Eating – Drinking a lot of water before, during, or immediately after the meal can dilute stomach acid and hinder digestion. This can cause undigested food particles to float around for longer and promote inflammation. It’ll definitely make you more bloated and constipated. You should wait at least 30 minutes after eating before having something to drink.
• Limit ‘Healthy Desserts’ – Even though some foods can be ‘low carb’ or ‘healthy’, you’d still want to avoid snacks and desserts as often as possible. The problem has to do with sensory-specific satiety. If you eat a bunch of steaks and then have a keto nutbar, you may end up over-eating on the bar because of the new taste it provides, especially if it has some artificial sweeteners or the like. They should be a treat every once in a while, but not the norm.
• Be Mindful of What You Eat – Most importantly, don’t eat mindlessly and sporadically. If you do eat, then sit down and actually enjoy it. Feel all the flavors and sensory stimuli take you over and be present. This will make you more grateful for what you eat. Eating more slowly will also enable the satiety signals to reach your brain faster without eating unnecessary calories.

Eat Less, Move More?

Modern-day hunter-gatherer tribes and subsistence societies don’t seem to be burning that many calories despite being lean and active most of the day.

They’re eating higher quality food with more nutrients that allows them to get more nutrition from less quantity of food. The Hadza eat quite a limited variety of foods from the wild – primarily meat and tubers in the dry seasons and more berries and honey during the wet seasons. This is enough to cover their average daily caloric intake of 2600 calories for men and 1900 calories for women, which is roughly the same as in Western populations.

Here are some principles to remember when trying to maximize nutrient density for health and longevity:

• Maximize Nutrient Density – You should aim for eating foods with the highest nutrient density that will give you a bunch of essential vitamins and minerals without having to eat too much. The best foods for that are organ meats, whole eggs, fish, vegetables, herbs, and spices.
• Avoid Empty Calories – There’s no point in eating foods that don’t give you a lot of nutritional value but come with a hefty caloric load.
• Obviously, processed food, even the “healthy kind” has a much lower nutrient density than whole foods. The idea is to also keep your overall daily caloric intake relatively moderate as to not tax digestion, mitochondrial functioning, or accelerate aging. Instead, you would want to always stay around your maintenance calories even when trying to gain muscle and strategically cycle your caloric intake.
• Eat Plenty of Protein – High-quality protein should be central to every meal because of its satiety factor and benefit on lean muscle. On this program that includes resistance training and intermittent fasting, you don’t have to worry about overstimulating mTOR with protein because you’re already in an effective metabolic autophagy state. The daily protein requirements are typically quite low and not optimal for muscle or even longevity for that matter. A higher protein diet tends to be better for body composition and predictably on metabolic health as well. In reality, it’s only high relative to the extremely low RDA of protein. When doing the more advanced type of intermittent fasting, then you’d need to be consuming slightly more protein as well to trigger more anabolism within a smaller time frame. In general, you would want to aim for 0.7-1.0 g/lb of lean body mass. There’s no additional benefit for muscle growth for going beyond that. Sometimes you may find yourself going up to 1.2 g/lb whereas at others you’ll be at 0.6 g/lb, depending on which stage of the anabolic cycle you’re in.
• Balance Your Healthy Fats – Animals who eat their natural diet have a 1:1 omega-6 to omega-3 ratio. The optimal ratio for humans is also around 1:1 or 1:2. If you’re experiencing high levels of stress, inflammation, or sickness, then you may benefit from increasing your omega-3 intake a little bit. You can even do well on a 2:1 ratio favoring omega-6s, but anything beyond that will make your body more pro-inflammatory. The main idea is to eliminate all vegetable oils, trans fats, processed carbs, added sugars, other artificial ingredients, and eat plenty of wild oily fish, grass-fed meat, and get healthy fats. Additional fish oil supplementation isn’t advisable unless you’re using a safe source or taking high-quality krill oil or cod liver oil.
• Eat High Fat but Not Too Much – Getting the other healthy fats into your diet, such as butter, olive oil, MCT oil, coconut oil, avocados etc. will be okay. However, fat is still a rich source of calories and there’s only a certain amount your body needs. More fat won’t make you burn more fat or make you metabolically healthier. Even though we can say that saturated fat isn’t the main cause of heart disease, it’s still not a superfood you could eat in unlimited amounts. The potential evolutionary trade-off of excess fat consumption simply isn’t a wise move and not optimal for longevity. As mentioned earlier, the minimum daily dietary fat intake is 20-30 grams, which isn’t that good either. A healthy fat consumption on non-ketogenic diets should be somewhere between 20-35%, which on a 2000 daily caloric intake would be around 40-80 grams. On a low carb keto diet, it should be slightly higher but you don’t need to be eating copious amounts of dietary fat because more won’t be always better. Most people can stick between 100-180 grams of fat and be perfectly healthy. There is no metabolic advantage to eating more fat beyond using it for daily caloric maintenance.
• Get Some Fiber – You definitely don’t need fiber to survive but it can be helpful in promoting satiety, helping with digestion, clearing constipation or simply bringing in more volume to your meals while keeping the calories low. Any more than 30-40 grams of fiber a day can still cause bloating, indigestion, and constipation if you overconsume it. However, if fiber helps you to be less hungry and thus eat fewer calories then it can be useful for longevity in the long-term. On some days you should be eating more, on some days a little less, and on some days completely nothing.
• Control for Blood Sugar and Insulin – Carbohydrate consumption should always be dependent on your body’s energy demands – did you work out, what’s your general health like, how long you’ve been fasting for, are you trying to gain or lose weight? Whatever the case, aim for keeping blood sugar and insulin relatively low most of the time and raise insulin only when the body could recover from the spike faster i.e. post-workout.
• Avoid Inflammation – Oxidative stress, free radical damage, and chronic inflammation are the root cause of atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, and a myriad of other health conditions. There’s acute inflammation whether from lifting weights or eating hormetic compounds that have a beneficial effect but chronic inflammation from being stressed out, consuming too many vegetable oils, eating allergenic things, and environmental toxicity are literally degrading your mitochondria and accelerating aging.
• Limit Allergens and Phytonutrients – It’s not wise to eat foods you’re reacting negatively to, such as gluten, grains, lectins, legumes, nuts, or dairy. You want to heal your gut and metabolism first. For healthy people, it’s okay to occasionally expose yourself to these allergens. In terms of hormesis, you’d want to be eating some beneficial plants and spices, such as wild nettles, green tea, turmeric, cinnamon, berberine, etc.
• Cycle Your Foods – Hunter-gatherers would go through periods of eating completely different foods throughout the year. The Hadza gut microbiome also changed in between the dry and wet seasons, showing a much bigger diversity than the average Westerner’s. 
• Balance Autophagy and mTOR – Some foods stimulate more mTOR whereas others are more autophagic. You don’t want to have high mTOR all the time nor do you want excessive autophagy. That’s why the key to determining what food groups in what amounts you should eat depend on the time of the day, metabolic homeostasis, particular goals of that day, and in what stage of the cycle you’re in.

Chapter Thirteen: The Keto-Adaptation Process

Ketosis and keto-adaptation aren’t mutually inclusive, and they have their differences.

• Being in ketosis is the actual metabolic state with the appropriate levels of blood sugar and ketone bodies. It’s said that ketosis begins at 0.5 mmol-s of blood ketones but having 0.3 mmol-s already is quite good. You can be in mild ketosis already after fasting for 24-hours but it doesn’t necessarily mean you’re successfully using fat and ketones for fuel.
• The keto-adaptation process makes your body adapt to utilizing fat and ketones as a primary source of energy. It means you don’t have to rely on glucose and can thrive on consuming dietary fat or by burning your own stored body fat.

To become keto-adapted, you have to go through a period of being in ketosis where your liver’s enzymes and metabolic processes change so you could have the ability to burn fat for fuel, but it’s not necessary to be in ketosis all the time to maintain keto adaptation. You can briefly dip in and out of ketosis for a day or two without fully losing it. After keto-adaptation you can be less strict with the macros.

• Carbs should still be quite low around 5-15%
• Protein can be increased for the muscle building benefits up to 25-30%
• Fat will stay around 55-65%, which will cover the essentials and gives extra energy.

How much fat you’re able to burn and how much protein you’ll compensate with depends on your level of keto-adaptation.

• Eating the high-carb-low-fat-high-protein diet is making your body quite dependent on glucose and frequent eating. The same applies to a high carb, high fructose diet. You have to eat very often to not go catabolic.
• Eating slightly lower carb, like a paleo approach where 30-50% of your calories come from carbs leaves some room for burning fat but it’s still making you burn some glucose because you’re eating more of it.
• Eating a strict low carb high fat ketogenic diet is the furthest you can promote keto-adaptation with diet. It’ll keep you in a state of nutritional ketosis wherein the body is geared towards using ketones as a primary fuel source.

Here’s how the keto-adaptation process looks like:

• Carb Withdrawal – you go on a low carb ketogenic diet and remove all carbohydrates from your diet. On keto, you eat leafy green vegetables, fatty meat, fish, eggs, and some other fats.
• Keto Flu Period – you may experience some fatigue and exhaustion because the brain doesn’t know how to use ketones for energy that efficiently yet. This may last from a few days up to several weeks, depending on your sensitivity.
• Getting Used to Ketones – you begin to feel better and more energized from eating low carb high-fat foods. The process can be accelerated by implementing intermittent fasting and making sure you’re not starving yourself. This may last from 2 weeks up to several months and the longer you do it the better it gets.
• Fat Burning Mode – your exercise performance will improve or at least you’ll regain the vigor you might have initially lost during keto flu. Here you can begin to see increased time to exhaustion, faster recovery from workouts, less fatigue during the day, mental clarity, and reduced hunger.
• Keto Adaptation – you can run very efficiently on dietary fat as well as your own body fat without needing carbohydrates to perform or feel energized. Thanks to burning ketones, you don’t get that hungry and whenever you do it’s temporary.
• Metabolic Flexibility – you can also use carbohydrates for fuel and you’re not going to get brain fog from being kicked out of ketosis. This is the ultimate goal of keto-adaptation – to not be dependent on ketones nor carbs and to use both in various situations.

The process of becoming keto-adapted takes about 2-4 weeks or even up to 3-6 months. How long it’s going to end up taking depends on how easily your body begins to accept ketones and fatty acids as a fuel source.

Some of the side-effects you may experience include losing water weight because of low levels of insulin, increased thirst, a slightly metallic and fruity keto breath, slight fatigue, and lack of appetite. Some of the good signs of proper keto-adaptation include no hunger whatsoever, mental clarity, high levels of energy all the time, increased endurance, reduced inflammation, stable blood sugar, and no muscle catabolism.

If you’re fasting blood glucose is under 80 mg/dl and you’re not feeling hypoglycemic then you’re probably in ketosis. Ketoacidosis occurs over 10 mMol-s, which is quite hard to reach.

Ketone Breath Meters indicate the amount of acetone in your breath. Acetone gets produced by the breakdown of acetoacetate in the blood. This measurement means that your mitochondria actually take the initial ketone body and then convert it further into an additional source of energy.

• For the best results, you’d want to know your blood ketones, blood glucose as well as the amount of acetone in your breath.
• Urine strips are generally useless because you can have higher amounts of acetoacetate in your urine because of dehydration or nitrogen overload as well but it doesn’t really tell you much about how well you’re using ketones for energy.
• The advantage of using breathalyzers is that they’re easier, more convenient, and much cheaper to use than using a lot of blood test strips.

There are a few reasons why you should occasionally get out of ketosis:

• Some people get hormonal imbalances, like low thyroid or testosterone, if they restrict their carbs for too long or if they fail to adapt fast enough.
• Your energy levels may also suffer from time to time because of overtraining or too much stress. In that case, carbs will speed up recovery and lower cortisol.
• Low mucous production of the ketogenic diet will prevent your body from creating enough mucus that surrounds and moisturizes your gut and eyes. That can be the cause of too low insulin and other growth pathways.
• Some carbohydrate foods can promote a healthy gut by increasing diversity in your microbiome. Changing up your menu will help to reset food intolerances and prevent them from developing in the first place. Too restrictive diets all the time may develop autoimmune disorders.
• Carbs can be used to boost your performance while working out but they can also be used for better sleep. Sometimes being low carb for too long may lead to some serotonin deficiencies and carbs can help to fix that.
• Eating carbs seasonally will fit better with the circadian rhythms and your own individual genetic blueprint. During some seasons it’s natural to be eating more carbohydrates and at others less.
• And of course, it’s nice to sometimes eat foods that aren’t bacon or vegetables. 

Why Bother with Keto?

Despite glucose being the body’s default main fuel source, most of the day you’re still using fat for fuel because doing daily chores, walking, or even low-intensity cardio maintains aerobic respiration. You only tap into your glycogen stores whenever you’re sprinting, lifting heavy stuff or training hard. Even then the degree of how much glycogen you’ll end up burning depends on your level of keto-adaptation because as we’ve seen ketones can be used at even higher intensities of exercise. Even people with 7% body fat have over 40,000 calories with them at all times.

High-intensity training, such as HIIT cycles, CrossFit, sprints, bodybuilding, and gymnastics are anaerobic by nature and span the creatine-phosphate system which requires you to be using glycogen in the presence of no oxygen. Because of that anaerobic environment, you can’t maintain it for any longer than a few seconds. You’re only burning glycogen for that specific time length and will revert back to using other fuel sources during rest.

When it comes to high-intensity training, then there are still some implications and constraints that have to be kept in mind:

• If you’re performing high-intensity exercise for longer and with fewer rest intervals, then your body will have troubles resynthesizing its glycogen with just fatty acids. Examples would include Ironman triathlon, a competitive sports game, a 2-hour high volume bodybuilding workout, a CrossFit game event, or having more than 2 workouts a day.
• Workouts that aren’t as taxing or frequent don’t require the addition of carbohydrates although they may still help. Examples include Olympic weightlifting, powerlifting, gymnastics, endurance, cycling, or short HIIT cardio.

Carbohydrate restriction has been shown to have many health benefits, starting from fat loss, neuroprotection of the brain, better biomarkers, stable energy, and ending with mitochondrial density and longevity. Burning fat causes less damage to the mitochondria and it produces more energy per calorie, which has benefits on cellular survival. Being dependent of carbohydrate refeeding is also quite a fragile position to be – you’re always limited by your glycogen stores and have to structure your entire day around eating. After becoming keto-adapted, you can tap into your stored body fat very fast and easily, which keeps you energized even while fasting for 5 days or more.

You don’t have to be in strict ketosis all the time to stay keto-adapted but you do need to maintain a semi-ketogenic state of glycogen depletion to build up these fat oxidation pathways into your metabolism.

How to Increase Metabolic Flexibility

• You have to establish nutritional ketosis by doing a low carb ketogenic diet for at least 2-4 weeks.
• After the first period of keto-adaptation, you can start tinkering with some carbohydrates to improve your performance.
• The fact of the matter is that you still want to be eating relatively low carb, especially at times when you’re not exercising.
• If you’re able to go without food for over 24 hours and not experience hypoglycemia or muscle weakness, then that’s a good indicator of keto-adaptation.
• At this point, your physical performance at all intensities is generally the same and you don’t need carbs to fuel your training. However, you can still use a few hacks that include strategic carbohydrate consumption.
  • The Targeted Ketogenic Diet (TKD) involves consuming a small dose of carbohydrates during your most intense workouts.
  • The Cyclical Ketogenic Diet (CKD) involves eating keto for 5-6 days, then having a day of eating more carbohydrates, and then returning back to keto.
  • There’s also something called Carb Backloading (CBL) where you eat low carb all day, then you go to the gym to have a muscle glycogen depleting workout that makes you more insulin sensitive, and then have dinner with a few extra carbs like a sweet potato, a bit of fruit, or some rice.

The Cyclical Ketogenic Diet:

• Training 4 or more times per week with mostly resistance training.
• Examples: bodybuilding, powerlifting, weightlifting, Crossfit, obstacle course racing
• Goals: build muscle, increase strength and power, have your cake and eat it too
• Refeeds either on your harder training days or the night before.
• If you feel like you’re feeling sh#t the entire following week because of keto flu then dial down on the amount of carbs you’re consuming and have less frequent refeeds.

The Targeted Ketogenic Diet

• Training 4 or more times per week with mostly resistance training or ultra-long endurance.
• Examples: bodybuilding, powerlifting, weightlifting, Crossfit, obstacle course racing, Ironman, rowing, marathon running, swimming
• Goals: build muscle and lose fat while improving performance, power, and endurance
• Have small amounts of easily digestible carbohydrates with protein during your workouts, such as a shake or ripe bananas.
• Adjust your carb intake according to your performance requirements and how you feel. Start off with just 5 grams and slowly keep adding an additional 5 grams per 30 minutes of intense physical activity.
• Hard training athletes can consume up to 30-50 grams of carbs during training while staying in ketosis.
• If you’re training twice a day then have a larger shake during the first workout and a smaller one during the second one. Still, eat keto in between training sessions.
• Eat low carb keto when you’re not exercising and in the post-workout scenario.

The Standard Ketogenic Diet

• Training 3-4 times per week with either resistance training or cardio.
• Examples: powerlifting, fitness, weightlifting, endurance, jogging, cycling, yoga
• Goals: lose fat, build strength, stay fit, improve health, battle diabetes, reverse insulin resistance
• If you’re not feeling tanked or feeble during workouts then you don’t need to be consuming carbs. Also, if you’re not planning on pushing yourself extra hard at the gym on that particular day, then you shouldn’t feel the need to eat carbs either.
• If you’re feeling hypoglycemic and are about to pass out during exercise then it’s a sign of not being keto-adapted. You’re simply in a state of still running on a sugar burning engine and you need to build up your fat burning pathways through diet before trying the TKD or CKD. Adding more electrolytes can also help.
• Eat low carb keto the entire time with enough protein and healthy fats.

Carb Backloading

• Training 4 or more times a week with primarily resistance training and anaerobic exercise.
• Examples: powerlifting, weightlifting, CrossFit, bodybuilding, competitive sports
• Goals: build strength, gain muscle, increase performance, train more frequently at higher intensities, eat carbs more often
• If you don’t want to do the targeted ketogenic diet or prefer to workout with low glycogen, then you can safely eat more carbohydrates the night before your heavier training. This will fill up glycogen stores and primes you to perform more intensely the next day.
• If you’re having heavier training sessions throughout the week, then it’s even better to have 1-2 nights of carb backloading.
• The best time to eat carbs is post-workout with depleted glycogen.
• Carb backloading is great if you don’t want to eat the keto diet all the time.
• Eat low carb keto in the earlier parts of the day before training. After working out have some carbs. Adding fasting is a great idea for sure.

The problem with strict therapeutic ketosis is that it’s not necessarily going to ensure keto-adaptation as you can be in ketosis without using those ketones for fuel and you can have very high ketones without being able to perform at your best. More ketosis doesn’t equal more keto-adaptation as it has to involve the aspect of mitochondrial density and energy production. It can also neglect some of the performance-enhancing benefits of carbs.

Chapter Fourteen: The Anabolic/Catabolic Score of Food

• High mTOR (HiTOR) – stimulates mTOR and insulin significantly
• Moderate mTOR (ModTOR) – stimulates mTOR but not a lot of insulin
• Low mTOR (LowTOR) – promotes anabolism without significant mTOR
• Neutral mTOR (nTOR) – doesn’t stimulate mTOR or anabolism
• Low Autophagy (LowATG) – supports the activation of autophagy and glucagon
• High Autophagy (HiATG) – activates autophagy and lowers insulin significantly

ATG refers to autophagy-related genes and the listed foods will stimulate pathways related to autophagy activation.

High mTOR (HiTOR) Foods

The best scenario is once or twice a week after a fasted resistance training combined with carb refeeds. Think of spiking insulin quite high for higher anabolism but allowing it to drop again within the next few hours.

Here are the top 5 HiTOR foods:

1. Whey Protein + Carbs – Whey protein itself already is a super concentrated form of very bioavailable protein that triggers MPS quite a lot. However, combining protein with carbs raises insulin exponentially higher than protein alone. This will also activate mTOR a lot more. That makes all the amino acids you consume with carbs much more anabolic than if taken by themselves. Leucine, which is the main amino acid that stimulates MPS doesn’t spike insulin as much if taken alone.
2. Rice Protein + Carbs – Rice protein is another highly bioavailable protein that’s plant-based. There’s not a significant difference between whey and rice in terms of MPS but rice protein may be less inflammatory and with fewer allergens. Compared to whey, rice protein is better for digestion and keeping IGF-1 lower but it may not be that effective for rapid MPS. What matters more is the overall MPS stimulation of the entire feeding window.
3. Egg Whites + Carbs – Egg whites are pure protein with even a bit of carbs. They’re not that nutrient dense because all the nutrition is in the yolk. Egg whites are just a source of extra protein some bodybuilders use to keep their fat intake low. In fact, on a ketogenic diet, you’d want to do the opposite and eat just the yolks because egg whites may be allergenic. Nevertheless, if you were to consume egg whites alone with not a lot of fat, you’d spike your insulin quite high. Add some carbs into the mix and it’ll go even higher.
4. Chicken Breast/White Fish + Carbs – Chicken breast or white fish are also very lean and mostly protein. The stereotypical chicken and rice meal of bodybuilders holds true in the sense that it’ll spike insulin and trigger MPS. If the carbs are low fiber and high glucose, such as white rice, white potatoes, or pasta, then it’ll be even more effective.
5. Protein Powder + Fruit – Any protein powder that’s low fat, low fiber, high protein and rich in leucine will spike mTOR and MPS. Adding ripe fruit that doesn’t have much fiber, such as bananas, pineapples, mangos, dates, or honey will raise insulin in that context as well. That’s why you don’t want to be eating fruit on a regular basis. It’s not ideal for ketosis or your liver health as it can lead to fatty liver disease and promote insulin resistance.

Moderate mTOR (ModTOR) Foods

For optimal mTOR sensitivity, you’d want to eat ModTOR foods consistently but ideally limit them only to when you’re working out.

Here are the top 5 ModTOR foods:

1. Red Meat – Meat is a potent stimulator of mTOR and MPS. However, meat by itself in the context of a low carb diet has quite a low insulin to glucagon ratio, thus it’s not that anabolic. Red meat is also one of the best sources for most of the essential nutrients you need like protein, fat, B vitamins, iron, etc. For maximum nutrient density, you’d want to eat some organ meats, like liver, heart, kidneys, and the tendons rich in bone marrow. Other great options are beef, pork belly, steak, unprocessed bacon. Ideally, you want to get grass-fed meat or wild game for the better omega-6 to omega-3 balance. Avoid sausages with extra sugar and wheat.
2. Whole Eggs – Eggs have all the amino acids you need and they’re particularly rich in leucine as well. You can get about 550 mg of leucine from a single egg and it takes 2-3 grams of leucine to trigger MPS. So, the standard 4-5 egg breakfast is quite good for muscle building. Although for optimal longevity you’d want to postpone that breakfast. The yolk is where most of the nutrition is. Cholesterol is incredibly good for building muscle. When cooking, don’t over-fry eggs or hard-boil them as it’ll damage the nutrients and may oxidize the cholesterol.
3. Poultry – Chicken, turkey, and other types of poultry are quite rich in protein. Industrial chicken tends to be quite high in omega-6s and low in other nutrients. Turkey is highest in tryptophan, which can help with serotonin production and thus make you more relaxed. That’s why eating poultry may help you to sleep. Chicken skin and the drumsticks are rich in glycine, which improves skin health and has anti-aging effects.
4. Oily Fish – Salmon, sardines, mackerel, trout, flounder, herring, and anchovies are incredible sources of healthy omega-3s, especially DHA and EPA. They’re great for cardiovascular health but they also promote muscle growth because of their relatively high protein content. The anti-inflammatory effects will also increase your performance by lowering inflammation, accelerating recovery, and promoting cellular health.
5. Cheese and Dairy – Milk is one of the most anabolic foods there is, which is why mammals are breast-fed their mother’s milk during the first periods of development. The high fat and protein content is supposed to jump-board the infant’s growth and build up the essential parts of the body. However, dairy also raises IGF-1 quite a lot, which will increase inflammation, insulin, skin issues, and accelerates aging. That’s why dairy isn’t the best thing to consume on a habitual basis. Fermented kefir and cheeses are fine but they’re still not something to eat all the time. Compared to something like meat, dairy isn’t going to help you build that much muscle but it’ll still stimulate the heck out of mTOR and IGF-1, which will lead to a regretful trade-off in longevity.

Low mTOR (LowTOR) Foods

Think of LowTOR foods as something you’d consume on a rest day as to get the essential nutrients and maintain lean tissue.

Here are the top 5 LowTOR foods:

1. Starches– Potatoes, sweet potatoes, rice, buckwheat, quinoa, carrots, and beetroot are quite high in carbs and they raise insulin. Of course, the insulin response to white potatoes is a lot different from raw carrots but they’re still favoring the insulin to glucagon ratio towards higher blood sugar. It’s not just meat or protein that stimulates mTOR – insulin offsets this entire cascade in the first place, which is why your rate of anabolic growth will be much lower if you were to eat protein on a low carb diet. Nevertheless, carbs alone, like a rice bowl with vegetables alone, won’t be that mTOR stimulating because they’re low in amino acids. In that situation, it’s not worth it to be eating those carbs either because even though they’ll raise insulin, they won’t be that effective for muscle growth. You would’ve built more muscle and maintained better insulin sensitivity by simply eating a LCHF meal with protein.
2. Seafood and Algae – In addition to fish, oysters, shellfish, crabs, lobsters are also quite high in protein. Despite that, they have much more omega-3s and other fats which will lower the mTOR stimulating effect. Also, it’s somewhat difficult to over-eat on crab or oysters because of their limited availability and high satiety. Algae, like chlorella and spirulina, are great plant-based sources of omega-3s and DHA. Their relatively okay protein content can also help with muscle growth but I wouldn’t make my main source of protein algae. Seafood and algae are great for rest days when you want to maintain lower mTOR.
3. Beans and Legumes – Azuki beans, kidney beans, lentils, legumes etc. have quite a good amount of plant-based protein but they’re also high in fiber, which lowers their insulin response. The Blue Zones are known to eat beans and legumes. However, the longevity effect doesn’t come from the beans themselves but because of the overall hormetic lifestyle and caloric restriction. Also, beans are full of phytonutrients and lectins – way too much to eat them every day. You can get much better autophagy activating compounds from other foods that are lower in carbs, cause fewer digestive issues, and are tastier. Beans and legumes can be eaten sometimes on days you want to limit animal protein consumption and keep mTOR lower.
4. Nuts and Seeds – Almonds, pecans, macadamia nuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, chia seeds, pumpkin seeds, and sesame seeds have some good protein that’s LowTOR but they also have some phytonutrients. It’s not ideal to eat a bunch of nuts every day because (1) they may cause hormonal issues, (2) they may be a potential allergen, (3) they may have become oxidized or exposed to mold, (4) they’re easy to overeat, and (5) their nutrient profile isn’t something you wouldn’t get from other high-quality foods like meat, butter, eggs, or even algae for that matter. A few servings of nuts on some days are acceptable.
5. Butter and Animal Fats – Butter is also great for producing short chain fatty acids in the gut, which heals intestinal impermeability. Other animal fats like lard, tallow or goose fat are nTOR if you eat them by themselves or add to your low carb meal. However, excess calories even from fat may still raise insulin and stimulate mTOR because of the increased energy input. That’s why use these fats sparingly.

Although some of these foods are low mTOR, they can still stimulate protein synthesis as well as raise insulin. That’s why consuming these foods are very context dependent. For instance, potatoes with meat turns a LowTOR food into a HiTOR one because of how carbs and protein interact with each other. Likewise, you can still make yourself anabolic by overeating on fish or algae because of the excess protein intake.

mTOR Neutral (nTOR) Foods

They can help you to maintain lean muscle but they won’t make you build new ones alone.

Here are the top 5 nTOR foods:

1. Olive Oil and Olives – Rich in polyphenols and healthy fats. However, you have to make sure that your olive oil isn’t rancid or oxidized. Use only dark bottled olive oil that hasn’t sat on the store shelf for ages. Ideally, freshly pressed extra virgin.
2. Coconut Oil and Coconuts – A good source of plant-based saturated fat that has some MCTs. Coconut oil has antibacterial properties as well so you can use it for oil pulling your teeth or cleaning the face. MCT oil has even been shown to stimulate Chaperone-mediated autophagy a little bit thanks to the elevation of ketones.
3. Avocadoes and Avocado Oil – A low carb high-fat fruit with a lot of monounsaturated fatty acids. They can lower cholesterol and increase potassium intake more than bananas. The small amount of carbs in avocados is quite low which makes it quite neutral on the insulin/TOR scale. However, because of its small protein content, it should be thought of as an additive to your meals not the main source of calories.
4. Green Leafy Vegetables – Fibrous vegetables and plants are low in carbs, full of polyphenols, high in fiber and other compounds that help with blood sugar. Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, bok choy, and spinach won’t really raise mTOR but they can promote autophagy because of their small sulforaphane content.
5. Fermented Foods – Sauerkraut, pickles, natto, miso, and kimchi are primarily plant-based but the live bacteria in them actually make these foods animal-based. Sauerkraut won’t affect mTOR or insulin but it can help you to build muscle by improving gut health.

Low Autophagy (LowATG) Foods

Foods that can activate AMPK and stimulate autophagy a little bit. They’re rich in polyphenols, antioxidants, and other beneficial compounds that will lower blood sugar, improve insulin sensitivity, and trigger a mild hormetic response.

Here are the top 5 LowATG foods:

1. Coffee – Coffee induces autophagy and has benefits on cellular metabolism. It can also stabilize blood sugar, enhance fat oxidation, and protect against neurodegeneration, which makes it the perfect drink for fasting. However, too much caffeine will raise cortisol, which can promote inflammation and visceral fat formation around your belly.
2. Green and Herbal Teas – Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a green tea polyphenol, stimulates hepatic autophagy. Other herbal teas can also promote with liver cleansing and generally induce a more autophagic state. Bergamot, black tea, chamomile, and ginger tea have polyphenols and other compounds that stimulate autophagy. For biggest effect consume them while fasting. Avoid commercial teas that may have added fruit, sugar, and other carbs.
3. Apple Cider Vinegar – Apple cider vinegar lowers blood sugar and suppresses insulin quite a lot. That will indirectly promote ketosis. Whether or not it’s going to stop autophagy depends on the type of ACV and when you’re taking it. On the Bragg’s ACV label, it says: “Contains the amazing Mother of Vinegar which occurs naturally as strand-like enzymes of connected protein molecules.” Raw unfiltered mother contains proteins and bacteria which can technically inhibit autophagy if you take it in a fasted state. The filtered distilled version of ACV without the mother will be better to take while fasting. It’ll also lower appetite and kills off bad bacteria in the gut. Taking vinegar with the mother should be kept around meal time.
4. Hormetic Herbs and Spices – Many plants and herbs stimulate autophagy. Curcumin induces autophagy by activating AMPK. Piperine which is a compound found in black pepper induces autophagy and it also boosts the bioavailability of curcumin, which makes it a double whammy! Other similar spices are ginger, cinnamon, ginseng, and capsaicin from cayenne pepper. Generally, you’d want to be eating a bunch of herbs like rosemary, thyme, arugula, coriander, parsley, and basil because they’re incredibly nutrient dense, virtually zero calories, and with many benefits on blood sugar and cellular turnover.
5. Polyphenols and Flavonoids – Certain plant phytochemicals help to protect plants from danger. These same compounds give the plant its color and have a hormetic beneficial effect on the body. Darker pigments especially are indicative of a high polyphenol count and in folk medicine are said to promote liver health. 

• 1. Phenolic acid includes coffee, teas, grapes, red wine, berries, kiwi, cherries, and plums. For optimal anabolic/catabolic value, you’d want to focus on coffee and tea and have some berries every once in a while. Funny enough, coffee is the No.1 source of polyphenols on the standard western diet.
• 2. Stilbenes are associated with resveratrol. Resveratrol from red wine, cranberries, and grape skins is said to have life extension benefits thanks to the polyphenols. Resveratrol also stimulates autophagy and suppresses cancer growth. However, one must be wary of the carbs and alcohol of wine. I wouldn’t recommend eating grapes either unless you directly eat just the skins. Red wine’s resveratrol content is also quite small and is mainly a marketing hoax. If you want to get some real resveratrol, then consider getting it as a supplement instead.
• 3. Lignans are found in legumes, cereal, grains, fruits, algae, flax seeds, and some vegetables. Clearly, it’s not ideal to be getting your polyphenols from bread or beans as you can get a lot more of them from other healthier foods.
• 4. Low carb berries like bilberries, blueberries, elderberries, seabuckthorn, strawberries, dark cherries as well as dark chocolate and raw cacao are also high in polyphenols and antioxidants. Eat in moderation but not every day.

These LowATG foods can be consumed as part of your daily nutrition even during the limited eating window. Combining these polyphenols with mTOR stimulating foods won’t jeopardize the anabolic response that much and will be beneficial for longevity.

High Autophagy (HiATG) Foods

You should eat HiATG foods whenever you want to get into a deeper state of autophagy or liver cleansing. They can indirectly help your body trigger many of the other pathways related to longevity and cellular turnover.

Here are the top 5 HiATG foods:

1. Berberine – Berberine (Berberis vulgaris) is a compound found in Barberry or other plants with many medicinal benefits, especially in regards to lowering insulin and blood sugar. Berberine has been shown to have a similar effect on lowering blood sugar as metformin, which makes it a great thing to consume after larger meals, and it also activates AMPK. It’s better to strategically time your berberine intake after eating HiTOR foods or having carb refeeds because it’ll help you to lower the blood sugar and go back into autophagy faster. If you’re eating Mod- or LowTOR, then it’s not advisable to have berberine all the time because it may drop the blood sugar too much. It’s still a poison and the hormetic effect is in the dose.
2. Medicinal Mushrooms – Things like Chaga mushroom, Cordyceps, Reishi, turkey tail, lion’s mane, and shitake are powerful adaptogens that strengthen the immune system. They activate the main antioxidant pathway Nrf2 as well as stimulate autophagy. My favorite way to drink coffee is to add a bit of Chaga and Reishi powder to it. It’s going to increase the therapeutic effect during the fasted state and prevents the over-stimulation of caffeine.
3. Caloric Mimetics – Certain caloric restriction mimetics like Malabar tamarind, rapamycin, metformin, and berberine can activate autophagy. The most effective one is probably berberine but there are others such as bitter melon extract, fenugreek, adiponectin, ursolic acid, spermidine etc.
4. Shilajit – This nutrient-dense mineral has been used in Ayurvedic medicine to energize the body. Modern medicine has shown shilajit to contain fulvic acid and humic acid, which helps with ATP production as well as fighting bacterial infections. It won’t stimulate autophagy directly but it can regenerate cells by improving oxygen flow and antioxidant activity.
5. Astragalus – A lot of herbs and plants that belong to the Astragalus family have many medicinal benefits on longevity. Some examples include milkvetch, locoweed, goat’s thorn, licorice root, angelica, as well as curcumin, cinnamon, and ginger.

Most of the nutritional value and calories can come from meat, fish, eggs, and organ meats but the majority of longevity-boosting polyphenols and flavonoids will be derived from vegetables, berries, herbs, and spices.

Chapter Fifteen: Metabolic Autophagy Foods

Protein and Amino Acids

The most abundant proteinogenic or protein creating amino acid is methionine. It has an important role in growing new blood vessels and serves as the initiating amino acid of protein synthesis. Unfortunately, it’s been linked to some cancers as well. Methionine restriction is associated with extended lifespan and reduced IGF levels. Over-consumption of meat may reduce longevity just because of methionine but we also know that protein reacts differently with different foods.

Glycine supplementation had the same effects on life-extension and IGF-reduction as methionine restriction. Muscle meat and flesh, in particular, is higher in methionine whereas glycine can be found more in organ meats, tendons, ligaments, drumsticks, and all these ancestral bone broth parts.

High-quality protein that optimizes longevity and performance includes all the organ meats, bone marrow, the skin, ligaments, and tendons, not just the steak, filets, and pork chops. These unconventional bits are also more nutrient dense and packed with the other essential vitamins, such as B6, B12, phosphorus, magnesium, etc. Liver and heart, in particular, are probably the No.1 superfoods on Earth.

In general, the optimal amount of protein tends to be somewhere between 0.7-1.0 g/lb of lean body mass which for the same average individual weighing between 150-180 pounds would be 110-160 grams of protein at a minimum. There are no seeming benefits to eating more than 0.8 g/lb of LBM, even when trying to build muscle.

Proteins to combine with carbs

Whenever you do choose to spike insulin and mTOR, then it’s best to do it with low-fat, high carb, and moderate-to-high protein. This will prevent the fatty acids being directly stored as body fat with elevated levels of insulin. The amino acids and glucose will replenish muscle glycogen and you’ll be able to clear the bloodstream faster. Eating lean protein with no fat on a low carb diet isn’t ideal if you’re trying to build muscle or maintain it. You need the other fattier chunks of protein for that. If, however, you’re trying to shed some body fat really fast, then you can also dial down your dietary fat intake and get into a much deeper caloric deficit by doing that. Body fat is fuel and if your body is already high fat, then all you need is low carb and high protein. This will work only as a short-term rapid weight loss tool but in the long run, you still want to feed your body enough of the healthy fats and proteins.

Carbohydrates and Vegetables

Whenever eating foods that are higher in carbohydrates, you should stay relatively lower with the fats, and stick to leaner proteins. That way you’ll avoid glycation of fatty acids and limit the formation of AGEs. It’s not advisable to combine cholesterol with carbs or sugars either because of the potential of oxidation. The morning toast with eggs and bacon is literally a ticking time bomb for atherosclerosis. However, take out the bread and go zero-carb and you’ll prevent that completely.

Fructose can only be metabolized by the liver and can’t be used as muscle glycogen. It, therefore, is almost completely useless to the body. In high amounts, it actually becomes toxic because of the liver having to work extra hard.

• Excess fructose can damage the liver and cause insulin resistance, which is a precursor to atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity, and fatty liver disease.
• Fructose can also cause rapid leptin resistance. Leptin controls your appetite and metabolism. If you’re resistant, then you’ll gain weight easily and can’t stop gorging yourself.
• The reaction of fructose with proteins is 7 times higher than with glucose. Because of that, AGEs get produced at an even greater rate.
• While your body can’t use fructose as energy, the bad bacteria in your gut can and that may cause imbalances in your healthy gut flora.
• Fructose causes more oxidative stress and inflammation than glucose. Cancer cells feed upon sugar, especially fructose, and thrive in an oxidized environment.
• Excess fructose also affects brain functioning, in terms of appetite regulation and blood sugar. 
• Fructose doesn’t replenish muscle glycogen and won’t promote muscle hypertrophy. Eat the carbs that will actually make you stronger and more built like potatoes and rice.

The function of fruit is to make you rapidly gain extra fat for the coming winter.

Fruit may have some vitamins, minerals, and co-enzymes that help with your overall metabolic process but its nutritional value pales in comparison to other vegetables. For general health, you’d be better off eating cruciferous, and for muscle growth, you’d want to be eating starchy tubers anyway.

How Many Vegetables to Eat

On the ketogenic diet, your daily carb intake would fall somewhere between 30-50 grams of carbs (5-15%). That number can change depending on your level of physical activity, how insulin sensitive you are, the degree of keto-adaptation, and also how long you fast for.

In general, your habitual everyday consumption of carbs would still fall somewhere between 10-30 grams. That’s the default you’d want to fall back to. On some harder workout days, you can go up to 50-100 grams from healthy tubers. For anabolic refeeds, it may reach 200 grams or so, depending on your goals.

Eat as many greens and cruciferous veggies that you want; root vegetables (carrots, turnips, beetroot), berries, and onions and garlic every other day; fruit, tomatoes, and capsicums less often; and potatoes and sweet potatoes, honey, and rice on carb refeeds.

When it comes to cruciferous vegetables and leafy greens, then it’s a good idea to cook them slightly as to break down their cell wall a bit for better nutrient absorption. Raw veggies are primarily fiber and very hard to digest by the human digestive tract. Too much rawness can cause digestive issues, bloating, constipation as well as hinder the metabolism directly. Cruciferous vegetables and leafy greens have different compounds that can damage our thyroid functioning, especially goitrogens and oxalates. Spinach, Swiss chard, and beets should be slightly cooked to reduce their oxalic acid content.

In general, it’s not advisable to have high mTOR and high insulin refeeds any more than once a week. People who train a lot can get away with 2 times but the average person could even do it only once or twice a year.

It’s okay to eat a few servings of fruit a few times a week but it has to be done carefully and with the right food combination.

• Don’t eat fruit with high-fat high cholesterol foods like eggs, meat, or bacon. It’ll oxidize the cholesterol and fatty acids again, creating more inflammation. 
• Have a few pieces of fruit on carb refeeds. The low-fat high carb context would make fruit safer to consume. However, too much fruit would fill up the liver glycogen and inhibit ketosis. You would want to eat primarily glucose-rich fruit, such as ripe bananas, dates, and oranges.
• Eat fruit seasonally. Despite having access to fruit from the supermarket year-round. You wouldn’t want to be eating fructose across all seasons. It’s important to have very low carb periods as to keep the body’s circadian rhythms optimized. The best time to consume some fruit is during the harvest season when you could find it growing within your local environment.

When it comes to pesticides and GMOs, then avoiding fruit is also a huge win-win situation. You’ll prevent the high fructose load on your liver AND you’ll avoid the increased inflammation from all the chemicals and toxins that get sprayed on conventional fruit.

Fats and Lipids

A healthy fat consumption on non-ketogenic diets should be somewhere between 20-35%, which on a 2000 daily caloric intake would be around 40-80 grams. On a low carb keto diet, it should be slightly higher but you don’t need to be eating copious amounts of dietary fat because more won’t be always better.

Here are the modified macronutrient ratios most people can stick to:

• Carbs should still be quite low most of the time around 5-15%
• Protein can be increased for the muscle building benefits up to 25-30%
• Fat will stay around 55-65%, which will cover the essentials and gives extra energy.
• Most people can stick between 100-180 grams of fat and be perfectly healthy. There is no metabolic advantage to eating more fat. Fat should be thought of as caloric leverage, not as a staple. If you want to raise your blood ketones, then just fast for a bit longer.

Phytic acid is a compound found in nuts and seeds that tries to protect the nuts from being eaten. In a small hormetic dose, they’re great but not something you’d want to make a staple in your diet.

Even though things like Chia seeds and flaxseeds can be a good source of low mTOR plant-based protein, their fatty acid content and amino acid profile isn’t that bioavailable.

Humans can convert only about 8% of ALA into DHA and you definitely want to be getting more DHA rather than ALA.

From a longevity as well as a performance perspective, you’re better off spending your calories and money on high-quality fish like salmon or oysters. It’ll be better for your brain, muscles, cellular membrane, heart, as well as physical output.

Limit your peanut consumption because it’s high in omega-6s, phytonutrients, lectins, and tends to get oxidized on shelves. They’re not even nuts – they’re legumes.

Dairy is one of the most natural anabolic foods that support growth in growing organisms. However, it’s not optimal later in life because dairy also raises IGF-1 quite a lot, which will increase inflammation, insulin, skin issues, and accelerated aging.

• Dairy can be subtly damaging for most people. Its main inflammatory insult comes from lactose, which can cause autoimmunity and allergies. There are 2 proteins in dairy – casein and whey. Whey gets digested quite rapidly, which is why it raises insulin and IGF-1. Casein is absorbed much slower, which is why it can promote more inflammation and things like skin problems.
• To avoid additional inflammation from dairy, you should opt for organic, grass-fed, unpasteurized products. Commercial cattle get injected with antibiotics and steroids, which jeopardizes the quality of their meat and milk. It’s also higher in omega-6s but lower in the fat-soluble vitamins like K, A, and D. Pasteurizing dairy also denatures the casein proteins, which makes it harder to digest and more inflammatory.
• Fortunately, things like butter and ghee are both virtually zero lactose and casein, which makes them relatively safe to consume.
• It’s not recommended to be consuming dairy on a daily basis because you’d gain bigger benefits for both muscle hypertrophy as well as general health from other foods. If you do choose to consume it, then stick to 2-3 servings a week from raw unpasteurized sources.

In addition to nuts and dairy, there are many other healthy fats we should be eating. Meat, fish, and eggs also have plenty of fats on them, but sometimes it may not be enough.

You want to keep your fat intake as low as possible during refeeds.

The fats in processed foods are the worst kind – vegetable oils and trans fats – which are bad for your health. Consuming them one day won’t do you much harm though, especially if you stay diligent on your diet for the rest of the week.

The danger with fats is that they tend to oxidize if used improperly. That’s why heating some of them is out of the question. To not cause inflammation we need to be very wise with how we use our fats.

Drinks and Beverages

Don’t drink fluorinated tap water that may have residues of plastics. It also contains chlorine at high enough levels to be carcinogenic. Plus, there’s the potential of heavy metal contamination from plumbing, especially in the city.

• The cheapest and easiest thing you can do is get a countertop filter pitcher like Brita or Longlast. It’s not 100% ideal but the least you should do. (<$50)
• Attach a carbon filter to your faucet ($50)
• Get the reverse osmosis water filtration system for the entire house. It’s the golden standard for water filtration ($300)
• Install a whole house carbon block filter system ($400-500)

Fortunately, on a fat-burning engine, you can create your own water endogenously during beta-oxidation. That water is deuterium depleted as well, which makes it lighter and healthier for the body. It’s amazing to think how being keto-adapted makes you so self-sustainable. I mean, you don’t have to eat food and can fast for days AND you don’t even have to worry about drinking water that frequently either because of creating it from your stored body fat.

In general, it’s not advisable to drink your calories – to have beverages with a bunch of extra sugars or fats. It’s just not ideal for satiety and leptin signaling. Nevertheless, there are many zero calorie beverages or close-to-zero calorie drinks that are okay for consumption.

When you’re fasting, then the only drinks you can consume are water, sparkling water, minerals, salted water, black coffee, teas, and apple cider vinegar. During meal times, it’s not advisable to drink a lot of liquids because it will hinder digestion. If you drink a lot of water with food, then it can lower stomach acid and can cause indigestion, bloating, or even intestinal permeability. The same post-meal.

Don’t drink anything at least 15-30 minutes before eating, minimize liquids during the food, and wait at least 30 minutes to an hour after you eat before drinking again.

For optimal longevity and performance, it’s recommended to not drink alcohol every night and stick to 2-3 drinks a week at max.

What NOT to Eat

By focusing on only the highest quality foods and then fasting at other times you’ll greatly improve your health as well as mental well-being:

• Refined Carbohydrates – These foods are processed in a way that lowers their nutrient density but increases their glycemic load and inflammation. Processed carbs like bread, candy, pastries, cakes etc. can promote serious health issues.
• Sugar – Clearly, table sugar is quite bad. Unfortunately, it’s added to almost every packaged food imaginable. Even “healthy meal replacements” or “low carb bars” may have hidden sugars.
• Trans Fats and Vegetable Oils – Highly inflammatory and oxidized fats high in omega-6s and other chemicals. It’s regrettable they were considered to be healthy at one point whereas they’re actually the complete opposite.
• Artificial Sweeteners – Despite their non-caloric content, they still raise insulin and promote diabetes. There are even some studies on how they cause brain cancer and tumorigenesis in rats. Avoid aspartame, sucralose, saccharin, Acesulphame-K, and everything else you can’t recognize. Certain sweeteners like xylitol and stevia are okay in small amounts. Sugar alcohols like erythritol are also fine if you limit them to 1-2 times a week. However, sweeteners may disrupt the microbiome and create bacterial overgrowth. They can also make you crave more sweetness.
• Grains and Legumes – They can cause gastrointestinal stress and gut issues in most people. If not the gluten from wheat, then the other phytates and anti-nutrients in beans can promote leaky gut syndrome, headaches, brain fog, autoimmune disorders, and even block the absorption of other minerals. These foods aren’t even that nutrient dense compared to something like steak or even healthy starches like potatoes. It’s not worth it to be eating grains and legumes because (1) they’re not that healthy, (2) they cause issues down the line, (3) they don’t even taste good, (4) it’s a hassle to make them more easily digestible. Avoid wheat, barley, rye, bread, pastries, cookies, cakes, beans, peanuts, lentils 90% of the time. Introduce them only a few times a year as hormetic conditioning.
• GMO Foods and Pesticides – They are not only poor in nutrients but also cause digestive problems. Commercial fruit and vegetables at the supermarket are laden with invisible chemicals that you don’t see. Even washing them thoroughly won’t help because the pesticides have penetrated into the plant. Unless you’re buying organic, avoid the Dirty Dozen and stick to the Clean 15 list of veggies. Then again, you don’t need to be eating ’the entire color of the rainbow’ either and can safely stick to high-quality animal foods.
• Commercial Dairy – Ideally, you’d want to avoid all dairy because of several reasons. It can cause inflammation and allergic reactions in most people. Compared to other sources of protein like meat or fish, it’s not that good for building muscle either and it’s too anabolic for the effect you’re getting. Fermented cheese, raw milk, kefir, and cottage cheese are okay in some amounts.
• Alcohol – Although a glass or two of red wine or a few heavy spirits can have a beneficial hormetic effect, you’d want to limit your alcohol consumption 95% of the time. Definitely avoid the high carb and sugary alcohols like ciders, beer, long drinks, cocktails, margaritas, pina coladas and everything else that’s super rich in calories. Those drinks are basically the equivalent of processed fruit juices with high fructose corn syrup and ethanol.

The US Department of Agriculture’s Pesticide Data Program publishes an annual report on the most pesticide-rich foods. They divide it into The Dirty Dozen and The Clean 15. Here’s a list for the year 2018:

• The Dirty Dozen (Buy Organic and avoid conventional) – strawberries, spinach, nectarines, apples, grapes, peaches, cherries, pears, tomatoes, celery, potatoes, sweet bell peppers.
• The Clean 15 (Safer to buy but still aim for organic) – avocados, sweet corn, pineapples, cabbages, onions, sweet peas, papayas, asparagus, mangoes, eggplants, honeydews, kiwis, cantaloupes, cauliflower, broccoli

The best option would be to grow your own food or at least buy it straight from local farmers who you know and trust.

Buying expensive vegetables and fruit won’t give you nearly as much nutrient density than high-quality animal foods like eggs, fish, and meat.

Chapter Sixteen: Supplementation

Before taking any supplements or meal replacements, you have to do your own research as to understand the potential side-effects and abnormalities that may or may not occur. The responsibility yet again is solely on you.

The 3 Main Supplements

• Omega 3s – The more omega-6 fatty acids you consume, the more omega-3s you may need. A healthy dose of omega-3s is 1000-3000 mg/day. Research shows that more than 5000 mg doesn’t seem to have any added benefits. For EPA and DHA, you should aim for a minimum of 250 mg and a maximum of 3000 mg/day in a combined dose. Eat wild fatty fish a few times a week. Taking a fish oil supplement is also optional. Krill oil might simply be a more potent and bioavailable source. Cod liver oil will be even better. Make sure to use wild-caught sources to avoid mercury poisoning. Plant-based supplements for omega 3s include hempseed oil, algae omega, and wheat germ.
• Vitamin D3 – It’s not actually a vitamin but gets synthesized into one inside the body. Vitamin D3 governs almost every function within us starting with DNA repair and metabolic processes. It fights cardiovascular, autoimmune and infective diseases. Of course, it would be best to get it straight from the Sun but that is not always possible because of seasonality and location. An average adult should take at least 2000 IUs of vitamin D but it would also depend on how much exposure you get to natural sunlight. The upper limit for adults is 4000-5000 IU/day. Vitamin D may become toxic with high levels of calcium or if you take 10,000-40 000 IUs/day consistently. 
• Magnesium – It comprises 99% of the body’s mineral content and governs almost all physiological processes. Magnesium helps to build bones, enables nerves to function and is essential for the production of energy from food. Deficiencies can drive cardiovascular disease, depression, and headaches. RDA is 400 mg/day. If you’re physically active, then pay especially close attention to this because you may get muscle cramps and other problems.

Now, these 3 are the main supplements, I would add to any diet. It’s said that up to 80% of people don’t meet their RDA for magnesium. Seasonal Affective Disorder and depression due to vitamin D deficiencies are also very common. 

Essential Nutrients

Consuming too many of certain nutrients will hinder other metabolic functions and mineral absorptions. So, taking blood tests a few times a year to assess your nutrient status should be mandatory.

Here are the Essential Minerals to Cover:

• Calcium – RDA is 1000-1200 mg. Calcium deficiencies are common in older people or those who don’t consume a lot of dairy. Before supplementing, you should know whether or not you’re actually deficient because too much calcium promotes atherosclerosis and plaque formation. Especially if you’re not getting enough vitamin K2. Calcium and Magnesium absorption compete with each other in doses higher than 250 mg-s so you shouldn’t supplement them together. Consuming more dairy and calcium isn’t healthier and won’t strengthen your bones. Regions with the highest dairy consumption also have the highest rates of bone fractures and osteoporosis because they’re not getting enough vitamin K. It’s not recommended to supplement calcium if you’re eating meat and veggies.
• Choline – RDA is 425-550 mg-s. Choline is a precursor to acetylcholine – a neurotransmitter responsible for cognitive functioning and attention. It’s also vital for cell membrane, methyl metabolism, and cholesterol transportation. Foods rich in choline are eggs, meat, and fish. If you eat these foods, then you don’t have to supplement with choline. On a plant-based diet, it may be a good idea to take choline and inositol.
• Iron – RDA is 8-18 mg with most people getting about 10-15 mg/day from food and other supplements. Iron is essential for hemoglobin transportation, which helps to transfer oxygen to muscles and cells. Overdosing iron can be toxic so consult your doctor first before supplementation. Iron deficiencies are more common in diets with little or no meat.
• Iodine – RDA is 150 mcg-s but a lot of people are still deficient. Iodine is important for thyroid functioning and the metabolism. If you’re not eating a lot of seafood, like oysters, salmon, algae, sea kelp, and lobster, then you may want to supplement iodine. Taking about 300-400 mcg-s can be good for fixing symptoms of low thyroid. Raw vegetables will also inhibit iodine absorption so if you don’t feel like having hypothyroidism, then make sure you cook your veggies or replace them with starchy tubers.
• Potassium – Estimated daily minimum for potassium is 2000 mg/day and the RDA 4700 mg/day. You shouldn’t worry about eating too much potassium unless you’re taking supplements. If you’re not eating a lot of green leafy vegetables and avocados, then you may not be getting enough. Using potassium chloride salts with reduced sodium like NuSalt or taking potassium gluconate can be useful.
• Selenium – RDA is 55 mcg-s but optimal doses are somewhere between 100-300 mcg-s. Selenium is important for hormones and energy production, especially testosterone. Over 400 mcg-s of selenium, however, can be toxic and cause nausea. The daily requirements for selenium can be met with eating only 2-3 Brazil nuts. Other foods include seafood, meat, organs, chicken, nuts, seeds, and carrots.
• Zinc – RDA for zinc is 8-12mg/day. Zinc is an essential mineral involved in cell growth, protein synthesis and protecting the immune system. The upper limit for zinc a day should be under 100 mg because you may get nausea, vomiting and reduced immune functioning. Oysters are the most abundant sources of zinc with a massive 74 mg per serving. Other sources are beef, poultry, and some nuts. If you’re a male, then you should pay close attention to your zinc consumption because it’s one of the crucial minerals for testosterone production. But if you’re eating a lot of seafood or red meat then you don’t need to supplement it either.

Here are the Essential Vitamins to Cover:

• Vitamin A – RDA is 700-900 mcg with an upper limit of 3000 mcgs. Vitamin A or retinol is important for nerve functioning, growth development, building new cells and improving eyesight. The best sources of vitamin A are organ meats with liver giving you about 5000-7000 mcg-s from just 100 grams compared to the 700-800 of carrots. That’s why it’s better to eat liver only a few times per week. Higher doses of vitamin A like 12 000 mcg-s can become toxic and cause drowsiness and coma. The Inuit are known for developing hypervitaminosis A because of eating polar bear liver. Because polar bears feed exclusively on seals and fish, their liver contains extremely high amounts of vitamin A. Even just a mouthful has nearly 9000 mcg-s, which is why you’d probably die if you ate polar bear liver. If you eat meat and some organ meats, then you don’t need to supplement vitamin A.
• B vitamins are also essential and they can be found in animal foods. If you’re already eating a wholefoods-based diet that includes some meat then you really don’t need to supplement this. Vegans, however, are commonly deficient in B-vitamins so you’d have to look into taking a B-complex supplement. As an omnivore, supplementing can be counter-productive because you may get the wrong ratios of vitamins. Instead, focus on eating some red meat and fermented foods consistently. The optimal doses for B-vitamins are also slightly higher than the RDA. Here’s what you should aim for.
  • Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) —1.5 mg/day
  • Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) —1.7 mg/day
  • Vitamin B3 (Niacin) —20 mg/day
  • Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) —10 mg/day
  • Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) —2 mg/day
  • Vitamin B7 (Biotin) —300 mcg/day
  • Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid) —400 mcg/day
  • Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) — 10 mcg/day
• Vitamin C – RDA is about 75-90 mg-s with an upper limit of 2000 mg-s. The function of vitamin C or ascorbic acid is to reduce oxidative stress by increasing antioxidants. If you’re eating fresh cruciferous vegetables and cabbage, then you probably don’t have to worry about getting scurvy. Not an excuse to eat a bunch of fruit either. Also, by keeping inflammation low, your needs for vitamin C will decrease. It’s not recommended to macro-dose vitamin C or other antioxidants in hopes of boosting your immune system because it may actually make you weaker. The daily recommended dose would be 300-400 mg-s and perhaps 1000 mg-s during sickness but exceeding that can have a negative effect on your body’s capacity to deal with sickness naturally.
• Vitamin E – RDA for Alpha-Tocopherol is 15 mcg-s with a 1000 mcg upper limit. It’s a potent antioxidant and a fat-soluble vitamin. Vitamin E deficiencies are quite rare as it’s found in vegetables, fish, and nuts. Instead of taking dietary vitamin E supplements, you can use vitamin E oils on your face and skin to reduce wrinkles, lighten dark spots, and promote anti-aging.
• Vitamin K – The RDA for vitamin K is roughly 60-120 mcg, and the optimal level is about 200 mcg. This optimal level is mostly the same for both vitamin K1 and K2. It should be noted that while many sources may claim to hit the RDA for vitamin K, they have poor bioavailability – your body is unable to extract the full amount of said foods. That’s why you should eat a lot of organ meats, fermented foods, a bunch of cruciferous vegetables, and a bit of cheese. Supplementing vitamin K should be secondary.

Longevity Supplements

These supplements can extend lifespan by either stimulating autophagy, controlling insulin, eliminating pathogens or boosting mitochondrial functioning.

Here are Some Plant Compounds and Medicinal Mushrooms for Longevity:

• Chaga mushroom. – Chaga is a mushroom that grows on birch trees. It’s extremely beneficial for supporting the immune system, has anti-oxidative and soothing properties, lowers blood pressure and cholesterol, stimulates autophagy and fights cancer. Chaga will promote the health and integrity of the adrenal glands. This mushroom can be consumed as powder, made into tinctures, or boiled into teas. You can harvest and grind it yourself. I myself consume about 1-3 teaspoons of Chaga throughout the day and love to add it to my coffee.
• Lion’s Mane – A white mushroom that looks like a lion’s mane. It’s incredible for growing new brain cells and preventing cognitive decline. Supplementing just 3 grams a day has been shown to improve mental functioning of people with cognitive impairment. There are no known side-effects to all of these medicinal mushrooms. However, some people may be allergic to them. Generally, take 1-3 teaspoons a day.
• Reishi Mushroom – Reishi or Lingzhi mushroom is a fungus that grows in humid regions. It improves the immune system and red blood cell functioning, which makes the body more capable at fighting disease. In fact, a study of over 4000 breast cancer survivors found that 59% of them were consuming reishi. This mushroom has a more relaxing feeling to it and is best taken for relaxation and stress reduction.
• Rhodiola Rosea – It’s an adaptogenic herb that grows in mountainous regions. The root has many compounds known to reduce stress, fatigue, and anxiety. For men, it can also boost testosterone and increase virility.
• Shitake Mushroom – a Dark brown fungus that grows on decaying trees. It contains polysaccharides, terpenoids, and sterols that boost the immune system, lower cholesterol and fight cancer.
• Turkey Tail – Looks like a turkey tail. Cancer patients are sometimes given turkey tail extract to recover from chemotherapy and strengthen immunity. It’s another adaptogen that lowers stress and makes the body stronger.
• Gingko Biloba – Maidenhair, as it’s called, is native to China. Not only is it a powerful antioxidant but it also improves blood circulation by increasing nitric oxide. There are other benefits on brain and eye health as well. Gingko contains alkylphenols that may cause nausea, allergic reactions, headaches, and rashes. Taking about 120-240 mg in several doses throughout the day seems to be enough. Any more than 600 mg is probably not a good idea.
• EGCG – Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the main polyphenol in green tea with many health benefits. Green tea, in particular, is probably the healthiest drink in the world after mineral water. Too much green tea, however, may cause anxiety and heart palpitations because of the high caffeine content, which makes using green tea extracts or EGCG supplements a more convenient way to add extra polyphenols to your diet. Doses above 500 mg may become problematic.
• Astralagus – It’s considered a superherb from Chinese medicine that’s been used for thousands of years as an adaptogen. Astralagus boosts immunity, strengthens the heart, and promotes the flow of energy throughout the body. You can take about 250-500 mg-s as a supplement, ½ tsp as a tincture, or 1-2 tsp of dried root powder.

Here are Some Additional Longevity Supplements to Consider:

• Resveratrol – Taking resveratrol supplements with medications may cause unwanted side-effects like blood clotting and enzyme blocking. Most supplements have 250-500 mg-s per serving but studies say that to get the benefits of resveratrol you’d have to consume about 2000 mg-s a day. To get that amount, you’re going to have to take a high-quality resveratrol supplement.
• Sulforaphane – It’s a powerful antioxidant that turns on the Nrf2 pathway with many anti-cancer properties. Cooking broccoli and cabbage triples their sulforaphane content. Unfortunately, frozen veggies deactivate myrosinase, which is an enzyme that creates sulforaphane. Broccoli sprouts, in particular, contain dozens of times more vitamin K and sulforaphane. If you’re not eating a lot of cruciferous or sprouts, then you can take 10 mgs of sulforaphane as a supplement.
• Carnosine – It’s a combination of the amino acids – beta-alanine and histidine – with many anti-aging benefits. Carnosine is most known for protecting against free radicals and AGEs. This will keep the cells healthy and prevents aging of the skin. Naturally found in red meat and animal foods, supplementing carnosine has no side-effects. 7 ounces of beef has about 250 mg-s of carnosine but for optimal longevity, you’d want to aim for about 1000 mg-s a day.
• Astaxanthin – Wild salmon’s flesh is slightly pink and reddish – that’s astaxanthin. It’s an incredibly powerful antioxidant and mitochondrial supporter, which is why freshwater fish like trout and salmon are capable of surviving such harsh conditions. Astaxanthin supplementation is great for anti-aging and maintaining muscle functioning. Doses of 4-40 mg-s a day have been shown to be safe. Too much astaxanthin may cause an upset stomach.
• Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA) – Lipoic Acid has anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects on the brain, and other tissue. It helps with fat oxidation, blood sugar regulation, and cardiovascular function. ALA is found in every cell of your body and it can be obtained from vegetables and meat. Therapeutic dosages of ALA range from 600- 1800 mg/day with doses above 1200 mg-s causing nausea and itching.
• C60 – Buckminsterfullerene, or buckyballs, or C60 is quite a new and unstudied compound. It helps to eliminate superoxide dismutase, which gets created as a by-product of cellular metabolism. This fights reactive oxygen species and promotes longevity. C60 oil should be dissolved in oil with a centrifuge. Pure C60 can be toxic. Usually, as a supplement, C60 comes in either olive oil, avocado oil, or coconut oil. One teaspoon a day is probably enough for experimentation.
• Glutathione – The most important antioxidant in the body that’s made of glutamine, glycine, and cysteine. Naturally, glutathione is found in sulfur-rich foods like beef, fish, poultry, and vegetables. Glutathione decreases with age so it’s a good idea to supplement it. Increasing vitamin C and selenium may help co-factor the production of glutathione. Milk thistle and curcumin can also increase glutathione. Glutathione supplement doses range from 50-600 mg/day.
• Apigenin – It’s a compound found in plants and vegetables like parsley, onions, fruit etc. with anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory properties. Apigenin is neuroprotective and fights cancer. However, it can be toxic with 100 mg/kg causing liver toxicity in mice. Parsley is 45 mg/g apigenin. It can also be found in olive leaf and artichoke extracts. 
• Quercetin – Flavonoids are amazing anti-aging compounds and quercetin is one of them. It protects against free radicals and DNA damage. Quercetin is found in elderberries, red onions, garlic, cranberries, kale, hot peppers, kale, blueberries and the skin of apples. Supplementation is generally safe but not very effective because of poor bioavailability.
• Melatonin – The main sleep hormone melatonin is also a powerful antioxidant. You don’t want to rely on melatonin supplementation as it may hinder your natural ability to produce melatonin. However, using about 0.3-1 grams on some nights can be useful. Liquid melatonin is absorbed much better and gives a more sustained release.
• Spermidine – Originally found from semen, spermidine is a polyamine compound associated with anti-aging and other metabolic benefits. It can also boost autophagy, longevity and assist with circadian rhythm regulation. Foods higher in spermidine are aged cheese, natto, and miso but also beef, mushrooms, salmon roe, wheat germ, and chicken.

Here are Some Supplements for Mitochondrial Support:

• PQQ – Pyrroloquinoline Quinone is a non-vitamin growth factor that supports mitochondrial function. This will have a compounding effect on everything else you do. Humans can make about 100-400 nanograms of PQQ a day, mainly from dietary sources. Consuming 0.3 mg/kg PQQ is safe but 500-1000 mg/kg can cause death in rats. Foods high in PQQ are raw cacao, green tea, fermented foods, and organ meats. Taking about 20 mg of PQQ as a supplement is the optimal dose for an average weighing individual.
• CoQ10 – Co-Enzyme Q10 is another mitochondrial supporter and antioxidant. It’s important for energy production and tissue development. Found in fish, red meat, especially organ meats, and fermented foods. CoQ10 comes in two different forms — ubiquinol and ubiquinone. The CoQ10 in your blood consists of 90% ubiquinol and it’s more absorbable. Therefore, ubiquinol CoQ10 supplements are better. Daily dosage ranges from 90-200 mg. Doses over 500 mgs are also safe.
• Nicotinamide Riboside – B vitamins play an important role in energy and nerve functioning. Nicotinamide Riboside (NR) is a form of B3 that gets easily converted into NAD+ and can activate sirtuins. It’s mostly found in cow’s milk, whey protein, and brewer’s yeast. If you’re not eating a lot of animal products or are deficient in B3, then nicotinamide supplements can work. Doses of 5000 mg/kg haven’t shown increased risk of death. Nicotinamide Riboside can increase NAD+ as does Nicotinamide Mononucleotide (NMN).
• Pterostilbene – It is a polyphenol that’s chemically similar to resveratrol that can also act as a precursor to NAD. The benefits include improved insulin sensitivity, reduced cholesterol, increased cognition, and antioxidant capacity. High doses of pterostilbene can raise LDL cholesterol but there are no other known side-effects.

Here are Some Synthetic Medication Linked to Longevity:

• Metformin – Used for primarily diabetes, a lot of anti-aging enthusiasts are also interested in using metformin. Its main effect is in lowering blood sugar and suppressing insulin. Metformin also inhibits the liver’s glucagon production, which prevents weight gain and blood sugar rises. The most common side-effects include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It can also cause lactic acidosis by decreasing the breakdown of lactate into glucose. Hypoglycemia is another potential issue as well as cognitive impairments. Other than that, it’s deemed safe. I don’t see any practical value in taking additional metformin to lower your blood sugar if you’re already doing intermittent fasting, exercising, and eating low carb.
• Rapamycin – The mTOR pathway was discovered by a group of proteins being targeted by the compound called rapamycin, hence the name ‘mammalian target of rapamycin’. Rapamycin blocks mTOR and thus has been shown to increase longevity. It’s also known as sirolimus and it works as an immunosuppressant that inhibits T-cells and B-cells. There are a few side-effects, such as diabetes-like symptoms, weakened immune system, increased cancer risk, and impaired wound healing. That makes sense because TOR is necessary for tissue growth and maintenance. Blocking mTOR all the time isn’t optimal for longevity because it makes the person less insulin sensitive and weaker. Although rapamycin may be promising as a short-term treatment of diabetes and cancer, I don’t see it having any practical value for someone already doing the Metabolic Autophagy Protocol.

Anabolic Supplements

These aren’t your anabolic steroid-like substances that lower your natural testosterone, give you gynecomastia, or make your hair fall out. They’re actually quite healthy for you if taken at the right time.

Here are Some Muscle Building Supplements:

• Creatine Monohydrate – Creatine is an organic acid produced in the liver that helps to supply energy to cells all over the body, especially muscles. It enhances ATP production and allows for muscle fibers to contract faster, quicker, and makes them overall stronger. This means increased physical performance with explosive and strength-based movements and sprinting. Creatine has been found to improve cognitive functioning, as it’s a nootropic as well, improving mental acuity and memory, especially in vegetarian diets. Naturally, it can be found mostly in red meat. Just take 3-5 grams a day, preferably with food.
• Branched Chain Amino Acids. L-Leucine, L-Isoleucine, and L-Valine are grouped together and called BCAAs because of their unique chemical structure. They’re essential and have to be derived from diet. Supplementing will increase performance, muscle recovery and protein synthesis. There is no solid evidence to show any significant benefit to BCAAs. However, they can be very useful to take before fasted workouts to reduce muscle catabolism. It will protect against muscle catabolism and can even promote ketone body production.
• Whey protein – On a standard ketogenic diet, you would want to avoid protein shakes because they spike your insulin. If you’re doing CKD or TKD you would benefit from having an easily digestible source of protein. Before you break your fast and begin your carb refeed, make a quick shake to get the juices flowing. You can also use whey protein during fasted workouts with targeted intermitted fasting. This again will prevent muscle catabolism and will increase performance.
• Phosphatidic Acid – Phosphatidic Acid (PA) can regulate mTOR and promote muscle growth. It’s a unique lipid molecule that turns on MPS in response to resistance training. PA can be found in foods some foods but in extremely low quantities. Vegetables like cabbage contain 0.5 mg-s of PA per gram. That’s tiny compared to the 250-750 mg doses in studies. More research about the effectiveness of PA supplementation in humans is needed but no long-term side-effects have been noted. Daily intake of 450 mg-s is optional.
• Dextrose – It’s basically powdered glucose and very high on the glycemic index. You want to avoid it on SKD, but on CKD or TKD it’s very useful for a post-workout shake with protein. It’s dirt cheap and you’d want to take only 3-5 grams at once. Use it ONLY when doing the TKD or CKD because under other circumstances you’re not doing your health a service. Dextrose is pure glucose and it’s processed so it’s definitely not optimal for autophagy or longevity. Most people don’t need it and you may feel better without it but it’s just an option to keep at the back of your head.
• D-Ribose – It’s a simple carbohydrate molecule that’s involved in energy production. D-Ribose can be found in all living cells as it’s the structural basis of DNA and RNA. The other health benefits include reduced fatigue, improved heart health, better workouts, and kidney protection. Long-term D-Ribose supplementation may promote AGE production so you only want to use it for some hardcore workouts. In total, you can take about 5-10 grams of D-Ribose with pre-workout protein.
• Cordyceps – Cordyceps aren’t actually mushrooms but a family of parasitic fungi that grow on the larvae of insects. They grow inside their victims, usually ants, and grow stems outside of the host’s corpse. These ‘zombie-parasites’ have been shown to promote ATP production, reduce time to fatigue, increase oxygen uptake, and improve exercise performance. They’re not necessarily anabolic or pro-longevity but they will improve your health and lifespan.
• Peptides – They’re a combination of two or more amino acids in which a carboxyl group of one is united with an amino group of another. Basically, very small protein molecules with anabolic benefits. Peptides are digested more easily and rapidly. There are some common peptides like glutamine, creatine, and collagen, but some less conventional ones have a much stronger effect on human growth hormone production. For instance, IGF-1, GHRP-6, and Ipamorelin are very anabolic and promote muscle growth. Most of these peptides are not available for commercial purposes, only research and clinical situations.
• Deer Antler Velvet Spray – IGF-1 promotes cellular growth and anabolism. Deer antler velvet sprays contain growth hormones that can make muscles grow. Although the evidence and bioavailability of such products is questionable, it can still raise IGF-1 a little bit. Use deer antler sprays only after heavy training the same way you’d stimulate mTOR.
• Colostrum – It’s sometimes called ‘liquid gold’ because of the yellowish color. Colostrum is the precursor to breast milk and it’s rich in immunity-boosting compounds and growth factors. As an anti-aging supplement, it may prevent tissue degeneration and skin aging. Not something I’d recommend taking every day but on workout days it can be used for muscle hypertrophy.
• Collagen protein. Collagen provides the fastest possible healthy tissue repair, bone renewal, and recovery after exercise. It can also boost mental clarity, reduce inflammation, clear your skin, promote joint integrity, reduces aging and builds muscle. Naturally, it’s found in tendons and ligaments, that can be consumed by eating meat. As a supplement, it can be used as protein powder or as gelatin capsules.
• HMB – β-Hydroxy β-Methylbutyrate is a by-product of leucine, which is an amino acid that stimulates protein synthesis. It’s been shown to reduce exercise-induced muscle damage and improve recovery. HMB can cause acute muscle anabolism and MPS independent of insulin, thus it will maintain a semi-fasted state. You can take it with the intra-workout protein shake to minimize muscle catabolism. Use pure HMB powder instead of the ones with artificial sweeteners.
• Beta-Alanine – An amino acid that reduces fatigue and increases physical performance. It’s the main ingredient of many pre-workout drinks and thus it can help you to push yourself during workouts, especially if you’re training fasted. Generic pre-workout drinks are way too stimulating and high in caffeine. Instead, take pure beta-alanine with your protein shake.

I myself stick to primarily creatine, whey protein, cordyceps, and maybe some BCAAs every once in a while. By following a wholefoods-based diet, I’m already getting enough amino acids and the supplements are just to optimize my fasted workouts.

The Extra Edge

As a disclaimer, they’re not some miraculous alchemical substances that will instantly melt off 10 pounds of fat and increase life expectancy by 5 years. Instead, they’re supplements that work in some situations.

• Pro and prebiotics – Naturally, food is full of living organisms.
• Sauerkraut, raw milk, yogurt, unprocessed meat all have good bacteria in them. Probiotics are live microorganisms in a pill that transport these good bacteria into our gut for improved digestion and immune system. Prebiotics are different, they’re not alive, but plant fiber that feeds the bacteria. They’re indigestible parts of the vegetable that go through our digestive tract into our gut where the bacteria then eat them. If you’re coming off antibiotics or suffer from a gut dysbiosis, then it can be useful to add some probiotics into your diet. However, to know what strands and species to take specifically you’d have to take a gut test.
• MACA Root – Another superfood comes from the Peruvian mountains and is the root of ginseng. It has numerous amounts of vitamins and minerals in it, such as magnesium, zinc, copper etc. Also, it promotes hormone functioning for both men and women, as well as increases our energy production just like creatine does. It can either be powdered or made into a tablet. You shouldn’t take maca every day because of its potency. Optimally, you’d want to take maybe a teaspoon every other day.
• GABA – Called gamma-aminobutyric acid, it’s the main inhibitory neurotransmitter and regulates the nerve impulses in the human body. Therefore, it is important for both physical and mental performance, as both of them are connected to the nervous system. Also, GABA is to an extent responsible for causing relaxation and calmness, helping to produce BDNF.
• L-Theanine – It’s an amino acid found in tea leaves, especially green tea. L-theanine has an alertness boosting effect but it’s not as stimulating as coffee. The release of caffeine from L-theanine is more subtle and long-lasting. That makes it a great addition to your morning coffee if you want to prevent the crash. It’s generally safe and there isn’t a lethal dose.
• Alpha GPC – Alpha-Glycerophosphocholine or α-GPC is a cholinergic compound that improves cognitive functioning and brain health. High doses of 1200 mg-s appear to be effective in treating Alzheimer’s and cognitive decline. Some athletes take 600 mg-s before exercise to hone their mental focus.
• 5-HTP – 5-Hydroxytryptophan is a precursor to serotonin, which has anti-depressant and relaxing effects. It can help with sleep, weight loss, and anxiety. 200-300 mg doses are safe but higher ones may have side-effects.
• Bacopa Monnieri – Also known as Waterhyssop is a nootropic herb that’s used in traditional medicine for cognition and longevity. It can improve memory and relieve stress. The standard dosage is 300 mg-s a day with the upper limit being around 750-1200 mg-s.
• MCT oil – medium chain triglycerides are fat molecules that can be digested more rapidly than normal fat ones, which are usually long chain triglycerides. Naturally, it’s extracted from coconut oil and is an enhanced liquidized version of it. 
• Exogenous Ketones – Supplemental ketone bodies that raise your blood ketones for a short period of time. They come in the form of either beta-hydroxybutyrate salts or ketone esters. BHB salts are marketed as a fat loss tool for getting into ketosis. However, the seeming fat loss effect comes from appetite suppression and adherence. They still have calories and they’ll actually shut down your liver’s own endogenous production of ketone bodies. The best time to take exogenous ketones would be as a pre-workout while fasting. At other times they’re not worth it. I sometimes would take some BHB salts to increase my electrolytes but not on a habitual basis.

When to Take Supplements

• Take your supplements with food. At the first meal, take vitamin-D, fish oil, sea vegetable powders. In the evening, GABA, creatine, magnesium, to promote sleep. I like to think of Brazil nuts as supplements as well and take 2-4 of them daily. Don’t take any more because you’ll get selenium poisoning.
• Most of the minerals in your body are stored in your bones, fat tissue, and other storage locations. The problem is that if you’re eating all the time – several meals a day, then you’re preventing yourself from using those micronutrients.
• Moral of the story is: you don’t need to be taking a lot of supplements as long as you’re eating a wide variety of foods, even if you’re eating just once a day.
• The thing is that while the body catabolizes itself, you mobilize a lot of the nutrients that are already there. Micronutrient deficiencies are mostly caused by poor dietary choices overall not by inadequate supplementation.
• You definitely don’t have to worry about micronutrient deficiencies while fasting for just 16-24 hours. Honestly, anything less than 24 hours isn’t actual fasting because you’re not triggering the deepest metabolic adaptations.
• Iron and electrolyte deficiencies happen usually because of dehydration and excessive excretion of your body’s salts. The most common reason is coffee and tea consumption. You can drink coffee while fasting but hot liquids and beverages may make you absorb less of the micronutrients. The tannins and caffeine in coffee and teas can lower the absorption rate of your supplements. They can also make you excrete more of the other electrolytes and minerals through urine, so you have to be careful with not taking your supplements together with these drinks.
• There are so many prescription drugs out there that it all depends on what particular disease you have and what kind of medicine it requires.
  • If you’re fasting for just 16-24 hours, then take your medication with food to make sure you absorb it. 
  • If you’re fasting for several days, then consult your doctor and ask what are the absorption implications and what ingredients the drug has. Most medications have additional filler ingredients like corn starch, dextrose, and other compounds that may potentially inhibit the autophagy effects of a fast.
• But honestly…Doing strict fasting for several days is much more effective and healthier for you than taking medicine. The majority of diseases can already be fixed with fasting.
• Before supplementing any specific vitamin, you’d be better off by first focusing on eating real food, getting your nutrients from that, taking blood tests to see your deficiencies, and then taking those supplements you need with food.
• While fasting, you’re much better off by getting your electrolytes and not worrying about the other micronutrients. You won’t become deficient, you’ll promote the mobilization of your already existent mineral stores, you’ll elicit a beneficial hormetic response, and you’ll maintain your sensitivity to those nutrients while you’re actually consuming food.

Chapter Seventeen: Metabolic Autophagy in Practice

There’s nothing innovative about intermittent fasting or time-restricted feeding – it’s been practiced for thousands of years by different religions and people. That’s why you should be careful which gurus you listen to on social media, especially those who don’t really understand the underlying mechanisms of what’s happening with the body.

Here are a few of the other renown ways of doing IF:

• 24-Hour Fast. – This is the most basic way. It doesn’t even have to mean that you actually go through a day without eating. Simply have dinner in the evening, fast throughout the next day and eat dinner again. This one is also prescribed by the author of Eat Stop Eat, Brad Pilon. The frequency of these fasts depends on the person but once or twice a week should be the golden standard. An active person who trains hard should do it less often than a sedentary person. The leaner you are the less you have to fast, but that doesn’t mean you can’t gain all of the other physiological enhancements from occasional abstinence.
• 16/8 Lean-gains Protocol – This is one the most popular strategies, popularized by Martin Berkhan of Leangains. You fast for 16 hours and have a feeding window of 8. Simply skip breakfast and have it during lunch instead. Instead of following 16/8 we can do 14/10, 18/6, 20/4 or whatever fits the situation. The idea is to simply reduce the amount of time we spend in a fed state and to be fasting the majority of the day.
• The Warrior Diet is a fasting protocol created by Ori Hofmekler. The entire concept is based around ancient warrior nations, such as the Spartans and Romans, who would be physically active throughout the day and eat mostly in the evening. At daylight, they would only get a few bites here and there and would consume a lot of calories with dinner. This diet follows the 20/4 timeframe with one massive meal eaten at dinner.
• One Meal a Day (OMAD) – It’s the simplest way of eating – just eat once a day. Usually, you fast for about 22 hours and eat your food within a 1–2-hour timeframe. This works best for weight loss because you’ll be quite full and thus can effortlessly stay at a caloric deficit. If you do it with proper keto-adaptation, then you’ll also preserve more muscle. However, this may not be ideal for muscle growth because of the limited protein synthesis and anabolism. Instead, the Targeted Intermittent Fasting Protocol is the enhanced version of OMAD.
• 36-Hour Fasts – In this case, you abstain from eating anything for 1 entire day + 12 hours. It’s not actually difficult at all. You simply have dinner the previous night, don’t eat anything in the morning, lunch nor evening, go to bed in a fasted state, wake up the next day, fast a few hours more and start eating again. 
• 48+ Hour Fasts – These ones will make you enter into deeper autophagy and burn a ton of body fat. In my opinion, the fastest and healthiest fat loss strategy would be to cycle between 3-5 day fasts with OMAD refeeds. You want to lose the fat as fast as possible and extended fasts are the quickest way of doing it.
• Alternate Day Fasting – There are also approaches like the 5:2 Diet and Alternate Day Fasting, which include fasting but allow the consumption of about 500 calories on days of abstention. The Fasting Mimicking Diet falls into the same camp. Those small number of calories are only for increasing compliance. I wouldn’t recommend this, because caloric restriction won’t allow all of the physiological benefits of fasting to kick in. You want to shock the body and go straight to zero for the greatest effects. Complete abstinence is a much more effective strategy for both your physiology and psychology. Eating something would neglect the entire idea behind fasting, which is to abstain and reset.
• Dry Fasting – Not drinking liquids is also said to have autophagic benefits although there aren’t many studies putting this theory to the test. One day of dry fasting is thought to equal 3 days of water fasting. The idea is that if you deprive yourself of water, your body will start to produce its own by converting the triglycerides from the adipose tissue into metabolic water. Hydrogen gets released as a byproduct of beta-oxidation. Dry fasting has been practiced in certain religious and healing practices. In general, you don’t want to become dehydrated for too long. However, daily time-restricted dry fasting of 12-16 hours can be another thing to do if you need deeper autophagy. At your own risk, of course.

Targeted Intermittent Fasting

To overcome the challenging situation of wanting to spend more time in a fasted state while still being able to train hard I like to use targeted intermittent fasting. Here’s what it looks like:

• Fast for the majority of the day as long as you can before working out.
• Consume only water and zero calorie teas or coffee all the way up until 18-20 hours of fasting.
• You can even add a window of dry fasting for 12-16 hours into it before introducing liquids and calories.
• When starting to workout at 18-20 hours, consume a protein shake with 20-30 grams protein. You can even stay within 15-20 grams.
• It’s preferable to drink it during the actual workout and use quality protein powders that don’t have artificial sweeteners or other additives.
• For even greater performance you can use a bit of D-ribose, exogenous ketones, or some beta-alanine.
• In the post-workout scenario eat the rest of your calories within 2-3 hours or in a single meal. Make sure you still get enough protein after training.

The limiting factor of intermittent fasting is that you won’t be able to train as hard as you potentially could. Of course, you’ll have more energy to push yourself and get stronger if you ate something before that. However, that protein supplementation minimizes the length of how long before you have to do it.

You don’t need to be consuming any calories all the way up until the point you’re about to do resistance training. At that moment, you’d want to have some protein and amino acids to protect you against excessive catabolism. The protein shake contains amino acids and other building blocks that will help with performance. Thanks to having fasted for about 18-20 hours before that, your body will utilize that protein quite rapidly and it’s not going to cause any issues. Before lifting weights, you’ll be in deep ketosis and you don’t need any exogenous nutrients to fuel your daily low-intensity activities.

Targeted Intermittent Fasting should be done only with intense resistance training that depletes muscle glycogen and damages muscle fibers. It’s not necessary for cardio, yoga, or something else like that because your body isn’t under such demanding conditions. Also, it’s not advisable to be doing TIF continuously every day throughout the year. You want to use it during periods of more physical activity and anabolism but not when prioritizing autophagy.

It doesn’t even matter how long you fast for – you can still do this type of targeted fasting and working out fasted. You simply fast all the way up until the workout, then you drink a protein shake during the workout, continue to fast until your post-workout meal, and then finish eating for the rest of the day. It’s generally best to combine TIF with OMAD because a lower eating frequency is still more beneficial. On 16/8 it’s not necessary because you haven’t been fasting for that long.

Avoid the generic supplements with artificial sweeteners, colorings, and other questionable flavorings because they promote insulin resistance and gut problems. Instead, you’d want to find a quality brand with natural ingredients and zero fillers. Also, for the best anabolic effect, you’d benefit most from either whey or rice protein. Whey is more anabolic whereas rice is slightly less. Other plant-based proteins like hemp or pea are also okay but they may lack the complete amino acid profile and they may be too high in fiber. The 20-30 grams of protein in the shake is taken to reach peak muscle protein synthesis activation. On easier workouts, you can stay within 15-20 grams and gain the same effect.

Taking BCAAs in conjunction with the protein shake isn’t necessary, although not detrimental either. A quality whey protein would already have enough aminos, which makes the additional BCAAs an overkill.

Other ingredients you can add to the TIF shake include creatine, beta-alanine, cordyceps, and D-ribose. If you’re planning on having a real killer workout, then maybe taking some target keto carbs from dextrose or a banana can also be good. At that point, you simply have to know what the purpose of your training is. 

After the TIF workout, you should wait about 1-2 hours before having the post-workout meal. This will lower your cortisol and promotes proper digestion. To trigger additional MPS, you’d want to be eating complete proteins high in leucine, such as eggs. Honestly, eggs are the best post-workout muscle building food because the cholesterol is going to promote healing and the leucine will stimulate MPS. If you’d like to really build muscle, then taking 2-3 grams of leucine powder can also work. Next to that, meat, fish, and some veggies sounds like a good meal. If you’re eating carbs like potatoes or rice, then you’d want to avoid these fattier cuts of meat and eggs. Instead, combine them with lean proteins like white fish and chicken breast.

Targeted Intermittent Fasting: Fast every day for 18-20 hours, water and tea only while fasting, start working out around 18 hours, 20-30g protein during training, eat other calories post-workout, eating window of 2 hours.

You want to avoid autophagy boosting and anti-inflammatory compounds after resistance training. The reason is that they can block some of the adaptations your body’s going through. You shouldn’t take a cold shower or an ice bath after lifting weights either – they can blunt the hormetic response. Instead of taking a bunch of turmeric and medicinal herbs, you should relish more with the anabolic foods.

Targeted intermittent fasting should be the default way of eating whatever diet you follow. Here’s why:

• You want to be in a fasted state relatively often. At least with low blood sugar and ketosis
• You only really need to eat if you’re doing something physical. Most of the day doesn’t require eating if you already ate within the last 24-48 hours.
• You would want to have some protein before doing resistance training for performance and recovery. Taking the protein during the workout will be digested quite rapidly and it won’t even feel like you’ve fasted prior to that. It’ll also prime muscle growth faster.
• You don’t need to be eating any more than once a day. Most people shouldn’t eat more than twice a day but OMAD is still more optimal.
• Eating at a slight caloric deficit or at least around maintenance promotes longevity. By doing TIF you’re circumventing the limiting factor on muscle performance and are still able to build muscle despite eating extra calories.

The only time you should follow a higher meal frequency would be during pregnancy, malnourishment, some medical condition, severe metabolic damage, elderhood, or when you’re doing a ton of physical exercise.

The leaner and more physically active you are, the less you need to fast. First of all, there’s not much benefit to gain from that frequent abstinence. You’ll hit a point of diminishing returns quite quickly after which there are no great advantages. Secondly, if you want to work-out and keep making progress in your exercise performance, then you simply won’t be able to do so as much. Fasting is powerful but good quality nutrition is still the foundation for getting stronger and building healthy muscle.

What I recommend is to have therapeutic water fasts that last for 3-5 days 2-4 times per year. Preferably every quarter. You should have a 48 hour fast at least once within 1-3 months and 24 hour one every 2 weeks.

You can ease into it and start with skipping breakfast at first, but in my opinion, it’s a lot better to simply shock yourself completely. This will wake your metabolism up and tells the liver that it’s time to start producing those ketone bodies.

Metabolic Autophagy Cycle

If you have inadequate autophagic clearance, then you’ll prevent the dysfunctional components from being recycled. Likewise, not having enough mTOR, especially after resistance training, may lead to a decrease in muscle and strength. Too much of each, however, may actually cause some health problems because of over-expression. The body functions best around homeostasis.

***See actual book for examples of diet and workout plans***

The periods of anabolism and catabolism reflect in both the weekly cycles as well as during the 24-hour period. On days where you’re not lifting heavy and are resting, then it’s better to go into deeper autophagy and ketosis by limiting your carbs and mTOR stimulating foods. On these autophagic days, you can also eat at a slight caloric deficit to promote longevity and make yourself more sensitive to anabolic growth the next day.

Principles of Metabolic Autophagy

• Time-Restricted Feeding as Long as You Can Every Day – This is probably the most cost-effective thing you can do to improve your health and longevity. By simply not eating and fasting instead is one of the easiest ways to promote longevity and health. There isn’t a real physiological reason to be eating any more than twice a day. Hell, most people will do perfectly fine with a single meal, unless they’re under some special requirements. Whatever the case is, the minimum for daily time-restricted feeding is the 16/8-hour window, even when trying to build muscle. Instead of eating for distraction, you should leverage the fasted state as long as you can and then eat to support your physical conditioning.
• Lift Heavy Things and Do Resistance Training – The goal of your exercise should be to promote muscle growth and maintenance. Having more lean tissue is one of the best things for healthy aging and longevity. That’s why you want to predominantly resistance training instead of cardio. At minimum, 2-3 and up to 4-6 times per week. If you’re working out more intensely more frequently, then you may have to adjust your fasting window to make sure you’re not getting weaker or losing muscle. Some days should still be kept for cardiovascular training and full-on recovery but they aren’t the main focus.
• Get a Sweat on Daily – It’s incredibly important to keep your lymph system flowing and more active. Modern life is already quite sedentary and that can cause stagnation within the body. A lot of digestion issues and toxicities occur because of not clearing out the lymph fluids. Exercising and moving around are one of the best lymph node stimulators but any form of sweating whether by going to a sauna, doing yoga or running is great.
• Maximize Nutrient Density – This means eating high-quality foods that have an abundance of micronutrients, minerals, and other cofactors. Your purpose isn’t to eat as many calories as you can get away with but to get more nutrition out of fewer calories. Mild caloric restriction and eating around maintenance is beneficial for longevity. Eat nose to tail, get adequate electrolytes, cover your essential nutrients, supplement your deficiencies, incorporate some superfoods into your diet, and cycle between different food groups. You shouldn’t deprive yourself of nutrients either. Doing intermittent fasting doesn’t mean you’re starving yourself. Quite the opposite. You’ll be getting more than enough nutrition. Just in a time-restricted manner.
• Eat Whole Foods (A Lot of Plants) – In terms of nutrient density, you’d have to focus on eating a lot of vegetables that have many vitamins and other beneficial compounds but not a lot of calories. Animal foods have their place but you shouldn’t overconsume them. Most of what you eat in terms of volume should still be plant-based. Meat, eggs, fish, and fats simply have more calories. The antioxidants and polyphenols from cruciferous, veggies, berries, and other plants are pro-longevity because of being nTOR as well.
• Control Blood Sugar and Insulin – This is one of the best ways to ensure stable energy levels, avoid health problems, and maintain a more effective state of nutrient partitioning. It’s just not a good idea to have high levels of blood sugar or insulin all the time and the research supports that. Instead, your goal should be to keep them relatively low the vast majority of time and only raise them where the body is more sensitive.
• Don’t Combine High Carb High Fat Foods – Avoid processed inflammatory foods that are low protein, high carb, and high fat because it’s a recipe for insulin resistance, diabetes, and over-eating. This change will drastically enable you to avoid most metabolic disorders. The short dopamine rush may feel good but it’s not optimal in the long run. You can apply the 80/20 rule but do it at your own responsibility.
• Limit Evolutionary Trade-Offs – Avoid the “natural diet” fallacy both in the context of eating too much protein and animal fat as well as the plant-based approach. It’s not a wise idea to go into the extremes and think that you’re somehow immune to all disease. Who knows how your body individually will react to different foods. Maybe you’re not as insulin sensitive as you think you are to justify that carb-up. Likewise, don’t roll the dice with eating things that will potentially yield negative results but come with zero benefits. I’m talking about lectins, fruit, dairy, grains, vegetable oils, too much saturated fat, and carcinogenic meat…
• Stimulate mTOR and Anabolism Only When It’s Useful – You don’t want to be spiking insulin or mTOR just for nothing. To avoid any trade-offs in longevity, you want to eat ModTOR foods only after resistance training to support muscle homeostasis. At other times it’s better to stick to nTOR and autophagy-like compounds. This is relevant mostly when you’re eating more than twice a day. In the case of 2 meals a day, you’d want to make the first meal very low in anabolism and smaller in calories. The second one should be post-workout wherein you’re more sensitive to mTOR and insulin. If you’re not working out, then you’d be better off by limiting your protein intake and focusing on autophagy. You also don’t want to be eating a lot of meat, eggs, and fish every day. Most of your food should still be plant-based because of their nTOR qualities and polyphenols. Eat meat only after heavier resistance training workouts and not in excess. This way you’ll stimulate mTOR and anabolism only when it’s useful and without consequences on longevity.
• Cycle Between Anabolism and Catabolism – Don’t stay in either state for too long. If you’re anabolic too long, you may accelerate aging. If you’re catabolic too long, you may lose your muscle. Both aren’t optimal for longevity nor performance. That’s why you’d want to cycle between periods of being at a small surplus with staying around your maintenance and even dropping into a deficit. The human body evolved under constant energy stress and it’s what we thrive under. Never be stagnant or dysfunctional.
• Expose Yourself to Hormetic Stressors – Nutrition and exercise aren’t the only components of longevity. You also want to trigger hormetic adaptation outside of the gym. To live a longer and healthier life you have to become more resilient against stress and adaptable to the ever-changing conditions of the natural environment. Of course, modern life allows us to maintain homeostasis in everything we do whether that be our core temperature, daily routines, food consumption, or physical challenges but they’re elusive. To not be swept away by some unexpected circumstances, you want to follow a lifestyle that involves voluntary hormesis. Take cold showers, swim in icy lakes, turn off the central heating, burn some fat at the sauna, practice stress management, fast for 5 days a few times per year, and do something tough.

Chapter Eighteen: What Breaks a Fast

The biggest beneficial effects of fasting come from 3 things: autophagy, ketosis, and hormesis. IF promotes all of them to a certain degree, depending on how long you’ve been in a fasted state. The key trigger is energy deficit and glycogen depletion.

Fat doesn’t raise insulin significantly and it keeps mTOR suppressed in small amounts. Endogenous ketone bodies from your own body fat will stimulate autophagy, which can promote brain macro-autophagy as well. However, high amounts of ketones and fatty acids in the blood can still make you raise insulin. If there’s too much energy circulating the body, then that’s a signal to stop autophagy and trigger mTOR. Exogenous ketones can also be insulinogenic.

There are some ways to trigger autophagy that you can consume while fasting:

• Green tea has polyphenols and other ingredients like epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG) that stimulate autophagy. Black tea, herbal teas, and others like chamomile are also okay.
• Coconut oil or MCT oil can also stimulate autophagy in very small amounts by raising ketones. However, as we found out, too much fat and too much energy in the system will raise insulin. Any more than 1 tsp will probably have a counter-balancing effect.
• Medicinal Mushrooms – Reishi mushroom extracts are shown to increase autophagy and inhibit breast cancer growth as do the others like chaga and cordyceps. You can take maybe 1 tsp of reishi or chaga but no more.
• Coffee stimulates lipid metabolism through the autophagolysosomal pathway in mice. However, excess caffeine consumption may lead to higher blood glucose and insulin levels because of over-stimulating cortisol. That’s why drinking too much coffee may actually interfere with the fast. You shouldn’t drink any more than 2-4 cups a day.
• Apple Cider Vinegar has trace amounts of micronutrients and bacterial residue but it most likely isn’t enough to kick you out of a fasted state. It may actually boost autophagy by promoting the cleaning process. You can use the distilled ACV during the fasting window and opt for the one with the mother when you start eating.

Can you add some artificial sweeteners to your drinks while fasting?

• Aspartame doesn’t have any effect on the insulin response whether alone or combined with food. When protein produces a significant insulin response, then aspartame doesn’t seem to have any effect. However, aspartame is thought to be linked with many cancers and tumors. 
• Neither aspartame or saccharin seem to raise insulin. However, in one study they took people in a fasted state and made them swish 8 different taste solutions in their mouth for 45 seconds and then spit them out. Sucrose and saccharin were the only ones that activated an insulin response. However, in another study, they didn’t get the same results. Maybe the subject’s mind created their own placebo response by raising their blood sugar by will. 
• Direct transfusions of Acesulfame K increased insulin in rats. 
• Sucralose aka Splenda activates certain taste receptors that in some studies may stimulate insulin. However, one study found that infusing sucralose straight into the gut didn’t stimulate the hormones that raise insulin.
• Stevia can lower postprandial insulin levels compared to aspartame and sucrose. It’s the only natural sweetener that’s fine to consume in moderation.

Even if artificial sweeteners may not spike your insulin, it doesn’t mean they can’t inhibit autophagy. They’re also shown to have a negative effect on gut microbiome so it’s better to avoid them entirely.

A single portion and one piece of gum probably has 2-5 calories. Mostly coming from sugar alcohols and carbohydrates. You would definitely want to avoid gums that have corn syrup, fructose, high fructose corn syrup, and aspartame because we know these are quite bad for your health and gut flora. Of course, if you’re only consuming like 1-2 pieces of gum with these ingredients, then you won’t have a negative side effect on your health, granted you’re eating a healthy diet.

1-2 pieces of gum won’t break a fast in most cases. Brushing your teeth once is also okay. You just have to make sure you don’t swallow the saliva, not follow it up with 2 cans of diet soda, and not stimulate insulin by starting to crave for more food.

Putting a few slices of lemon, lime, orange, cucumber, or mint leaves into your water has zero effect on your blood sugar, autophagy, or fasting. Lemons and other citrus, however, contain calories, namely fructose, which stimulates the liver in a way to break the fasted state.

• If you were to eat some lemons, then you’re going to absorb the fructose, digest it, and thus inhibit the fasting. Whether or not it’s enough to break the fast completely depends on how much lemon you swallowed and how does it affect your blood sugar. I dare to say that 1-2 slices of lemon have a negligible effect on the fasted state.
• If the lemon slices are simply sitting in the water, then they’re maintaining the fructose inside the cellular matrix without releasing them into the liquid (unless you squeeze them empty, of course). In that case, you’re not absorbing the fructose either, which won’t affect the fasting.

The general guideline is that just drinking lemon flavored water while fasting won’t break the fast as long as it’s not lemon juice or some sort of a sugar-filled lemon sports drink.

It’s true that adding butter to your coffee will keep you in ketosis and maintains somewhat of a fasted state but it’s still going to inhibit autophagy.

• If you’re doing fasting for weight loss purposes and adding butter or MCT oil to your coffee helps you to make it through the fast then go for it. However, do remember that you’ll still need to consume fewer calories and putting an entire stick of butter into your cup will give you at least a few hundred calories.
• If you’re fasting to thoroughly clean your body from toxic proteins and inflammation, then I’d advise you to not consume anything at all and do strict water fasting with mineral water with these salts and teas.
• If you’re sitting on a couch and drinking bulletproof coffee in the morning after having slept for 8 hours, then your body is in a state where it doesn’t need excess energy. You’ve been sedentary and there are no real energy demands on your muscles that you can’t cover with endogenous production of liver ketones. In that case, drinking that coffee will have a much bigger effect on autophagy because your homeostasis for nutrient signaling is much lower. You will get a bigger nutrient signaling effect from smaller amounts of calories because your body’s energy demands are much lower.
• If you were to take that same bulletproof coffee and drink it at noon time when you’ve already moved around, taken a long walk, maybe had a workout or done some chores, then it’s going to have less of an effect because your body will be under higher energy demands. In that case, your ceiling for nutrient signaling is higher because the calories you’d consume would be allocated into use much more effectively and they’ll be burnt off faster. You may still interfere with autophagy a little bit but not to the extent as you would when you drink that same coffee with the same number of calories in the morning when your body doesn’t need that much energy.

There are some calories in BCAAs although they’re used for muscle protein synthesis. One gram of BCAAs usually has about 4-5 calories and a single serving of a standard amino drink will have about 20 calories. Therefore, BCAAs will kick you out of a fasted state, but whether or not it’s a bad thing depends on many things.

• BCAAs play the biggest role in supplying amino acids and energy with muscles specifically. At any given time, the liver is releasing a constant supply of amino acids to skeletal muscle for maintaining blood sugar levels and supporting cellular protein homeostasis. This mechanism is supposed to keep your cells nourished with enough building blocks needed for survival.
• If you’re coming from a diet that doesn’t restrict carbohydrates and maintains a glucose-dependent metabolism, then, of course, you’re going to lose muscle tissue while fasting. That’s why you want to get into ketosis as fast as possible if you’re doing intermittent fasting. Don’t even try to fast for extended periods of time unless you’ve gotten into ketosis because you’re going to lose a whole lot of muscle. It means that if you’re in a deep fasted state with elevated level of ketones, you’re more protective of lean muscle tissue than if you were to be consuming amino acids and negating the positive effects of fasting.
• Leucine and BCAAs do spike insulin but they increase plasma levels of insulin levels temporarily and they have almost no effect on glucose or urea nitrogen.
• Working out fasted is definitely more catabolic than working out fed.
  • If you’ve eaten a few hours before a workout, then you have nothing to worry about in regards to amino acids and muscle loss because your blood will be filled with BCAAs from food.
  • If you’re working out fasted and not having eaten anything for over 12-16 hours, then BCAAs can have an additional protective effect.

The key is to time your BCAA intake in a way that doesn’t kick you out of a fasted state.

• Taking BCAAs before a workout or when being sedentary will stop the fast and make you catabolic.
• However, if you’re working out, then you’re not necessarily in ketosis anyway. Heavy exercise, especially resistance training, releases muscle glycogen into the blood, thus raising insulin and lowering concentrations of ketones. That’s why a hard workout can cause a transient loss of ketosis.

The reason you’d want to drink mineral water is that when you’re fasting, you’re flushing out a lot of water and this may lead to electrolyte imbalances and mineral deficiencies. To prevent that, you can simply add a pinch of sea salt or pink Himalayan sea salt to your water. Also, consuming ionized rock salt will give you some iodine as well, which promotes thyroid functioning and prevents hypothyroidism.

If you’re already overweight or have excess body fat, then your body is already carrying around enough energy. You don’t need to elevate your ketones after you adapt to fasting ketosis. BHB salts or other supplements aren’t a fat loss tool – they’re simply ways of increasing your blood ketones but as we found out too much energy in the system can have a counter-balancing effect.

If you’re planning to fast for 16-20 hours, then you’d want to boost autophagy with these compounds I mentioned earlier. You’d want to skip all calories and drink only some coffee, teas, and at the most take 1 tsp of MCT oil with compounds like ginger, turmeric, and ginseng. This will help you to maintain a caloric deficit while still cleaning your cells.

If you’re fasting for over 24 hours then I recommend you to stick to only coffee, apple cider vinegar, and tea because you don’t need the extra energy from fat or the herbs as your own endogenous ketone body production is through the roof.

How to Break a Fast

Breaking the fast with a lot of carbohydrates may cause an abrupt weight gain. The reason for that is sodium retention. While fasting you excrete a lot of water and refeeding on carbs causes antidiuresis of potassium and sodium. You’ll get bloated but you may also have an energy crash of insulin.

Therefore, you want to be eating something that’s easier to digest and doesn’t put too much strain on the gut. It also depends on how long you’ve been fasting for. If you’re coming off a 5 day fast, then you need to be more patient than you would when just doing daily intermittent fasting with 16 hours fasted.

Let’s start off with the average situation where you’ve been fasting for about 16-18 hours and you’re nearing the finish line. During your fast, you can drink non-caloric beverages like water, tea or coffee.

Now that you’re about to break the fast, you want to consume something that stimulates the digestive tract without releasing insulin.

Apple cider vinegar is perfect for this – it balances healthy pH levels, kills off bad bacteria in your gut, stabilizes blood sugar and improves overall health. You can drink a glass of apple cider vinegar during your fast. But it’s a great drink for breaking it as well. Here’s what I do before eating any meals.

• 2 tbsp of raw apple cider vinegar
• 1 half of lemon squeezed into hot water
• 1 pinch of cinnamon for better blood sugar stabilization
• 1 pinch of sea salt

Alternatively, you can do this without apple cider vinegar as well and just use hot lemon water. In any case, you want the citric acid from lemons to promote the creation of digestive enzymes in the gut before you eat. After that, you can also drink some bone broth. Bone broth is amazing and super good for you because it has a ton of electrolytes but it’s also packed with collagen.

• Collagen protein is what most of your body is made of – your joints, nails, hair, skin – it helps to keep you more youthful and elastic.
• Drinking bone broth after your fast will also help you to absorb the other electrolytes and minerals a lot better. Your gut has been cleaning house for a while and is now ready to utilize the nutrients from the bone broth as well as the foods you’ll be consuming afterward.

If you’ve been fasting for over 20 hours, then it’s a good idea to drink some bone broth or some soup before you eat anything solid. If you’ve fasted for just 16 hours then it’s not that important but still a good idea.

BONUS TIP: Add cinnamon to bone broth.

An alternative for bone broth is also fish broth. You cook up all the leftover bits of the fish, like the head, the fins and bones so you could get all those extra omega-3 fatty acids. Don’t just throw away these foods when there are still so many unused nutrients on them. When cooking fish, avoid boiling temperatures and overcooking because it may damage the fats. It would be best to steam the fish in some medium-heat water for many hours and make a soup out of it.

If you don’t have access to bone broth but you still want to give yourself some immediate energy without crashing, then you can also consume some MCT oil. MCTs get converted into energy faster because the fatty acids in it bypass the liver and go straight to the bloodstream.

After you’ve drunk your lemon water and maybe bone broth, then you should wait for about 15-30 minutes to let your gut absorb the nutrients. You might feel your intestines waking up, which is a good thing.

To prevent a sugar crash, I recommend your first meal should be something small and low glycemic no matter what diet you’re on. This will keep you in a semi-fasted state because of the non-existent rise in blood sugar. Some examples would be:

• 2-3 eggs, half an avocado, some nuts and spinach
• 1 can of sardines with some salad and olive oil

I wouldn’t recommend you break your fast with red meat because it’s more difficult to digest than eggs or fish. Meat products should be eaten as your second meal.

The first meal should be still relatively small. In total, it should be around 500 calories. Unless you’re coming straight from a workout. In that case, you’d want to spike muscle protein synthesis with more protein and calories.

On your second meal, you should eat based upon your desired anabolic-catabolic condition. If you’re trying to build muscle or recover from exercise, then it’s a good idea to pick something from the ModTOR group.

When in maintenance mode or wanting deeper autophagy, stick to more nTOR foods and eat primarily plant-based.

The best time to eat fruit ever is when your liver glycogen is empty i.e. when fasting or while exercising. If your liver is already full and you’re eating fruit, then that fructose will be stored as fat and you may even get fatty liver disease. Fruit for dessert isn’t a good idea.

• If you do choose to consume fruit, then still make it low glycemic and opt for fruit with more fiber, like apples, berries or pears. Some citrus like grapefruit and oranges can be good as well. The high carb fruits like bananas and mangos should be considered more like performance fuel because they’re more insulinogenic.

Chapter Nineteen: How to Fast for Days and Days

The key to a healthy and successful fast is to establish ketosis as soon as possible and to prevent your body from entering into a semi-starved state. It also means that if you’re trying to lose weight, then it would be better to avoid all calories and do strict fasting until you’re lean rather than follow a calorically restricted diet that keeps you malnourished for several months.

Day One/Five

The standard morning routine of meditation, cold thermogenesis, and red-light therapy. During the day I’m going to be drinking very sparingly and only when I feel thirsty.

You NEED TO Get Enough Electrolytes! Fasting with nothing but pure water will make you flush out all of the minerals in your body, which can lead to muscle cramps, lethargy, exhaustion, heart palpitations, and elevated cortisol.

• Daily sodium minimum is at about 1500-2300 mg-s, which is 1-2tsp of salt. If you’re physically active or are sweating a lot, then aim for up to 3000-4000 mg-s, which is 3-4 tsp of salt. Use quality sea salt or pink rock salt. Mix it with water for better absorption.
• RDA for potassium is 4700 but once you get enough sodium, you don’t have to worry about getting any more than 2500 mg-s of potassium. Sodium is potassium-sparing and your cells will lose potassium only if you lose sodium. You can use potassium salts like NuSalt to get more potassium with less sodium.
• Other electrolytes like magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, and chloride aren’t that important during 3-5 day fasts because most of them are actually stored inside the body. Magnesium is much better absorbed through the skin than from supplements. That’s why taking an Epson salt bath with magnesium flakes can be a very good idea. However, 300-450 mg of magnesium can do wonders. Taking a multivitamin is necessary only if you fast for longer than 5-7 days. Your ability to absorb vitamins is much lower without food anyway so it’s easier to not take any supplements.

Additional sources of electrolytes can be baking soda and apple cider vinegar.

• Baking soda is 100% sodium bicarbonate and 1 tsp of baking soda has 1259 mg of sodium. It’s great for balancing the body’s pH levels, fixing digestive issues and healing the kidneys. Baking soda is a natural antibacterial and antifungal agent that promotes alkalinity in the body. You shouldn’t take around meal times because it’ll interfere with stomach acid production.
• Apple Cider Vinegar – ACV is zero calories but it has trace amounts of potassium and other minerals so it’s great to consume while fasting. During the fasting window, you should use the distilled vinegar without the mother.

That’s why I consume 1 cup of water with ½ tsp of baking soda, 1-2 tsp of ACV once or twice a day. This will also prevent kidney stones and ulcers while fasting, which may happen because of inadequate production of digestive enzymes.

Besides drinking salted water all day, you can also consume some black coffee, sparkling water, mineral water, non-caloric teas, and that’s practically it. The danger of drinking coffee or drinking too much water, in general, is that you may have to go to the bathroom more often. If you’re peeing very frequently, then you’ll also excrete out more electrolytes. A loss of minerals will make you feel more tired and actually predisposes you to dehydration. That’s why dry fasting can be much more effective than water fasting because you’ll hold onto your salts and you’ll enter into ketosis faster.

If you want to establish a ketogenic state faster, then you would want to deplete your liver glycogen stores to promote the production of ketone bodies. That’s why it’s a good idea to make your last meal before fasting low carb. By the next day, you’ll be in a semi-fasted state already with ketones running through your veins. Start the day with a long walk and you’re already there.

Some tips for surviving the first night would be to drink a small cup of water with 1 tsp of ACV before going to bed. This will reduce hunger and lowers your blood sugar in the morning.

PRO TIP: If you want to ramp up your metabolism and raise body temperature, then you can have 1/2 tsp of Cayenne pepper in your water. This will heat up your body and can stave off hunger. It won’t break a fast and the capsaicin stimulates autophagy.

Day Two – Staying Active

Once your body begins to show the first signs of ketosis, it starts to use its own stored fat for fuel, which gives plenty of energy to the brain and muscles. Your mental acuity and alertness will actually increase because of elevated cortisol and adrenaline as well.

While fasting for longer periods of time, it’s important to stay active and keep moving. You don’t want your body to start wasting away your muscle tissue just because of inactivity. It’s a good idea to either do a few sets of push-ups or use resistance bands to keep the stimulus active.

Walking is also a great way to reduce hunger. My hypothesis is that because you’ll be converting more body fat into energy, you’ll feel as if you’ve consumed some actual calories because on a metabolic level that’s exactly what happens.

How do you deal with other people cooking food around you and eating right in front of your eyes? 

• First, you have to realize that the reason you get the cravings to eat something is purely due to you being exposed to that particular sensory stimulation (the aroma of doughnuts, the sizzling sound of steak, the pleasurable looks of your peers enjoying their food).
• Secondly, once you recognize that you’ve been tricked into craving food, then you have the opportunity to manifest your willpower. The key is to start associating more pleasure with staying indomitable and to associate pain with giving in. This way you’ll feel better about yourself if you do manage to hold your discipline.

Day Three – Things Are Starting to Get Good

My daily liquid consumption usually looks something like this:

• Rinse my mouth with salt water after waking up and drink a cup of water with a pinch of sea salt.
• During the day, 1 cup of water with ½ tsp of baking soda, 1-2 tsp of ACV, drank over the course of 2 hours.
• When I feel thirsty, I sip on some regular water.
• At noon, I drink 1-2 cups of coffee.
• In the afternoon, I drink a cup of green tea with a pinch of sea salt.
• If I’m feeling hungry in the evening, I’ll make a cup of decaf coffee.
• In the evening, I drink a cup of water with 1 tsp of ACV and ½ tsp of sea salt.

In total, this will add up to 5-8 cups of liquids a day and about 2000-3000 mg-s of sodium, depending on the day.

It’s not actually a good idea to be drinking a lot of water while fasting because it’ll make you urinate more thus excreting more electrolytes.

The key is to pay attention to your hydration levels by monitoring the color of your urine and the context of your saliva.

• If your urine is crystal clear and you’re going to the bathroom every hour, then you’re edging on the side of overhydration and should dial down your liquid consumption.
• If your urine is dark yellow, brown, purple, or pure dark, then you’re very dehydrated and have to find something to drink.
• If your mouth is all dry and lips cracked, then you’re starting to get dehydrated and should get a few sips of water to drink.

Dehydration can inhibit mTOR and stimulate more autophagy because the body is forced to obtain the water it needs from other cells.

There’s a difference between a soft and a hard dry fast:

• Soft dry fast allows you to come into contact with water on your skin such as showering or mouth hygiene
• Hard dry fast limits all contact with hydrogen whether through the air, skin care products, or fumes.

Prolonged periods of dehydration may become dangerous to your health and cause long-term damage. So, how to do it safely?

• To prevent dangerous dehydration, you’d want to drink adequate amounts of water, sodium, and vegetables the day before to fill up your mineral stores.
• During the day, don’t consume any liquids from water, tea, coffee, or anything else. It’d be better to avoid strenuous physical activities as well to prevent muscle cramps. You don’t want to expose yourself to too much heat either like with saunas, baths, or steam rooms.
• If you’re dry fasting only during the day then you can “break the dehydration period” with a glass of salted water in the evening. Then I’d continue with more lemon juice water and apple cider vinegar.
• After that, you can eat a low glycemic meal that maintains stable blood sugar levels and insulin.
• If you’re dry fasting for longer than 24 hours, then you would simply go to bed without eating or drinking anything. In that case, you’d have to be cautious and take full responsibility for your decisions.
• Again – do your research and prepare yourself in advance.

Day Four – Things Getting Beautiful

It can be useful to measure your blood glucose and ketones to see where you lie. Ketosis itself begins around 0.5 mmol-s and within 4 days of fasting you can expect to fall somewhere between 2.0-5.0 mmol-s. If you hit numbers above 6.0-7.0 and you’re worried about ketoacidosis, then instead of bailing halfway through go for a long walk or exercise.

The reason you register so many ketones have to do with not burning them for energy and thus keeping them in the bloodstream for longer. That’s why you also have to look at your blood glucose. Generally, less glucose entails more ketones, unless you’re border-lining ketoacidosis. If your ketones and glucose both stay high for way too long, then consider breaking the fast or consult a physician.

Being in a fasted state is a unique and profound experience. You’re not feeling particularly hungry or tired but still somewhat limited in energy. It’s a blissful state where you can enjoy the clarity of mind and heart – free from cravings, free from attachment to food or the desire to consume something mindlessly. Fasting not only resets your taste buds from the imprisonment of processed food but also liberates your mind from being dependent on certain types of food that you tend to crave the most. Even the healthy kind.

Day Five – Preparing for the One Meal to Rule Them All

If you’re already eating a very clean diet with a ton of autophagic compounds, medicinal herbs, and staying in a slight caloric deficit, then you’re already getting most of the health benefits of longer fasts.

The morning routine was the same – ACV with baking soda and water, some coffee at noon, and smalls sips of water throughout the day.

You want to start off with easily digestible liquids like hot lemon water, bone broth, and stews. After waiting about 30 minutes, you move on with some fermented foods and steamed vegetables. The first protein you’d consume should be easy on digestion like eggs or fish. Too much meat can put unwanted stress on the gut.

Day Six – The Aftermath

On day 2 of eating again, you should eat slightly above your maintenance as to nourish the body and restore its energy. A small surplus of 200 calories is more than enough to rev up your metabolism and thyroid again. What you do on day 3 of eating again depends on your body composition and goals.

• If you’re overweight and have more than 20 pounds to lose, then you can immediately go for another extended fast for 3-5 days. Your body fat is food and the second fast will be that much easier.
• If you’re already lean and around 10% body fat, then you can swap over to the one meal a day or warrior diet with a daily intermittent fasting window of 16-22 hours fasted. Physically very active people can adopt targeted IF. Your next extended fast of 3-5 days for longevity-boosting reasons should be in a few months.

Chapter Twenty: When Not to Fast

Fasting raises certain stress hormones in the body such as cortisol, adrenaline, and norepinephrine that will heighten your awareness and mental clarity. Chronically elevated levels of these stress hormones may promote fat gain, low thyroid, exhaustion, and adrenal fatigue. Fasting itself won’t necessarily make you stressed out or weaken your immune system. It’s always context dependent and the other lifestyle factors need to be kept in mind.

Here are a few common stressors in your life that will make fasting much worse than it is:

• Being stressed out because of work makes you more prone to overeating and too much cortisol.
• Not sleeping enough promotes weight gain and insulin resistance, which will negate some of the benefits of fasting.
• Feeling anxiety and mental turmoil may cause the same stress as does physical pain and discomfort.
• Combining too much exercise with a lot of fasting may lower your thyroid functioning and lead to many plateaus.
• Poor food quality and not enough nutrients will lead to some deficiencies that make you more tired and can cause health problems.

Should You Fast with Low Thyroid?

Low thyroid functioning is most commonly caused by too much stress on the body. If there are too many stress hormones circulating the blood, you’ll lower the thyroid hormones as well as a means of self-defense.

Hypothyroidism is caused by too low amounts of thyroid hormones in the blood and it usually happens in people who’ve had Hashimoto’s disease, thyroiditis or have had their thyroid removed. Thyroid cells absorb iodine found in some foods and combine it with the amino acid tyrosine, which is used to create thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). They are then released into the bloodstream to affect your body temperature, your daily caloric needs, your heart rate and what’s your metabolic rate.

T3 and T4 are regulated by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland inside your brain.

• When thyroid hormones decrease, the pituitary gland releases thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) to signal the thyroid gland to produce more T3 and T4.
• With high levels of T3 and T4 in the blood, the pituitary gland releases less TRH so the thyroid gland could slow down.
• TSH production requires adequate protein, magnesium, and zinc.
• T4 requires iodine, vitamins C, and B2
• T3 requires selenium, and is dependent on healthy liver and adrenal gland function
• Most of the thyroid hormones comprise of T4 – nearly 80%. T3 is the active form of T4 and it’s thought to be more potent in regulating energy metabolism. There are also T0, T1, and T2, which act as hormone precursors and byproducts.

To prevent low thyroid from fasting you want to make sure you get enough calories during your eating window. A slow metabolism isn’t the result of time restricted feeding per se but more by not giving the body adequate nutrients. If you already suffer from low thyroid and experience the symptoms of hypothyroidism, then it would be a good idea to shorten your fasting window a little bit to allow your body time to recover. Simply have your food a few hours earlier and you’ll speed up your metabolic processes.

Here’s what you can do to overcome low thyroid without medication:

• Get More Iodine – The thyroid needs iodine to produce thyroid hormones. Even small doses of 250 micrograms of iodine a day can help the thyroid. You can get iodine only from diet and rich sources for that are sea vegetables, algae, wild caught fish, eggs, seaweed, shellfish, iodized salt, and some dairy.
• Limit Goitrogenic Foods – Goitrogens are compounds that can affect the thyroid gland if consumed in large amounts. Foods high in goitrogens are things like cruciferous vegetables, broccoli, cabbage, kale, and some fruit. However, the benefits of these foods far outweigh the downside. They’d become a problem only if you eat too many raw vegetables. If you cook or steam them lightly then you’ll lower the number of goitrogens in them.
• Tyrosine-rich foods that support the thyroid are pumpkin seeds, beef, poultry, almonds, avocados, eggs, and fish. They also have B12 and selenium. You should aim for organic meats because they’re not injected with antibiotics and other harmful hormones.
• A Healthy Insulin Spike – If you eat some carbohydrates like a sweet potato or rice, then you can boost your metabolic rate.
• Especially, if you’re eating a low carb diet. Prolonged periods of dieting will slow down your metabolism and doing some carb cycling can be very beneficial.
• Eat More Calories – Dieting and restricting calories for too long will slow down your metabolism and thyroid functioning. Having a diet-break for a few days where you eat slightly above your maintenance can help you to boost your metabolic rate. However, you don’t want to be eating inflammatory foods like processed carbs, pastries, pizzas, or ice cream. Instead, you’d want to get more of the thyroid supporting foods we’ve talked about here.

Now for the things you don’t want to be doing if you suffer an under reactive thyroid:

• Avoid All Gluten – Gluten is a common allergen that activates an autoimmune response on the thyroid. People with Hashimoto’s or hypothyroidism tend to be sensitive to gluten as well. Gluten is found everywhere – not just in bread, pasta, and cookies – it’s in almost all packaged foods, sauces, meats, skin care products, and the particles can even float around in the air. 
• Don’t Drink Tap Water – Most tap water contains fluorine and chlorine that inhibit iodine absorption and dampen your pineal gland’s functioning.
• Limit other potential allergens as well such as dairy, nuts, shellfish, eggs, fish, soy, or meat if you are sensitive to these foods.
• Don’t Fast for Too Long – It’ll lower your thyroid functioning further and can decrease metabolic rate. Definitely, you shouldn’t fast for longer than 24 hours if you have low thyroid. Until you’ve healed your thyroid and metabolism, somewhere between 16-18 hours is fine.
• Reduce Your Stress – It’s going to make you feel more drained and exhausted. Don’t start exercising harder or get more stressed out about work but try to relax more and allow your adrenals to recover.
• You should also avoid stimulants like coffee and sugar because they’ll activate the adrenal glands.
• Avoid Environmental Toxins such as pesticides, mold, BPA found in plastics, isoflavones found in soy, potassium perchlorate, cigarette smoke, and keep your home clean from these toxins. Heat saunas and sweating can help you to eliminate these toxins from your body.

Should You Do Intermittent Fasting When Trying to Bulk

In mainstream fitness advice, it’s recommended to eat very frequently – up to 4-6 small meals a day to avoid the catabolism of fasting. However, intermittent fasting can help you to actually build muscle in many ways:

• Short-term fasting has been shown to increase Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which is a precursor to testosterone. In a study done on obese men, LH increased by 67% after 56 hours.
• Another study found that obese men saw a 26% increase in GNHR (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone), which is another testosterone stimulant. The same study found that men who were working out saw a 67% increase in GNHR, which led to a 180% boost in testosterone.
• Occasional extended fasts increase nutrient partitioning and can help with absorption rates. Cycling your food intake is probably one of the best ways of maintaining metabolic flexibility.

A healthier body will build healthier muscles and promotes quality weight gain, not fat gain. For building muscle, you need to do resistance training, eat slightly more protein, get a small surplus of calories, sleep enough, and stay consistent. The only thing to keep in mind would be to restrict your feeding window a little bit so you would have some more time to increase protein synthesis.

When trying to build muscle, then fasted workouts aren’t ideal because they may limit your strength potential. The key to growing muscle is getting stronger and that’s why you may find the targeted intermittent fasting protocol or the 16/8 Leangains protocol perfectly suited for this. Any more frequent eating will definitely promote more anabolism but they’re not necessary.

Should Pregnant Women Fast

The mother should focus on being as healthy as they can to promote the health of her child in the future. Quality food, stress management, enough movement, and sunlight are all essential. Fasting can be a good addition but only in a dose-specific manner and definitely not all the time. I would still recommend having a daily fast of at least 14-16 hours to promote the general health of both organisms. Then once a week you may have a 20 hour fast but definitely not any longer than that during pregnancy.

Women may react to time-restricted feeding more negatively than men because of their hormonal sensitivity. It makes sense physiologically as well because they need to be the caregivers and have to actually give birth to offspring.

Should Children Do Intermittent Fasting

A growing child needs adequate amounts of IGF-1 and mTOR to promote the proper development of skeletal muscle, bone strength, jawline, brain growth, and the right hormones. That’s why it’s even more important to make sure young kids get things like quality grass-fed meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, and even whole milk, preferably from the mother’s breast. It’s not a good idea to deprive children of these essential nutrients, especially during the most critical periods of growth.

Children already produce a lot of growth hormone, which helps them to build new tissue, muscles, and develops their brain. As you age this surge of growth begins to drop. Fasting is an amazing way to promote growth hormone production and increase longevity. But this may not be necessary for young children. However, when you look at the body composition and health of most children today then you can see a growing concern with diabetes, obesity, insulin resistance, and other problems. Fasting can cure a lot of those diseases but it’s still not going to compensate for an unhealthy lifestyle.

Children should learn how to follow their hunger more intuitively and recognize when they actually need fuel and when they’re simply craving junk food. This teaches them to be more flexible while still dipping into a fasted state.

Deliberately enforcing time-restricted feeding onto children isn’t necessary and parents should simply eliminate behaviors of snacking, binging, sedentarism, and cravings. If there’s one thing you could do to benefit your child’s future metabolic health, then it would be not teaching them to eat sugar and candy. It’s just conditioning that can be easily prevented by replacing it with only whole foods. Your kids learn their behavior from you and those around them. So, make sure you are a good role model first.

Should Old People Do Intermittent Fasting

The only problem with fasting when you’re older is that you may be more predisposed to muscle loss and catabolism. This may make you more prone to metabolic disease and more aging. As you lose muscle, you’re more predisposed to bone fractures, insulin resistance, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular disease.

In general, the trend already shows that all the anabolic hormones like HGH and testosterone drop alongside with a reduction in lean body mass. Part of it has to do with becoming more sedentary and not doing resistance training but it’s also partly because of becoming less anabolic.

Leucine resistance, in particular, makes it more difficult for old people to maintain muscle, not to mention build it. That’s why longer periods of fasting may lead to accumulated sarcopenia. However, that can be easily alleviated by becoming more active and stronger.

To circumvent sarcopenia, you’d have to keep lifting weights, eat adequate amounts of protein, and avoid sedentarism. Increasing protein intake up to 35-40% can also be a good idea as to negate some of the leucine resistance. To stimulate MPS after exercise, you can even take 3-5 grams of leucine to promote muscle homeostasis.

It’s not recommended for old people above their 60s to have extended fasts for 3-5 days either. Going without eating for such a long time may have side-effects on muscle mass. The elderly go catabolic more easily because of low anabolic hormones. That’s why even on the daily IF schedule they should focus more on the 16/8-time frame instead of a very tight OMAD meal.

Should You Fast Every Day

If you jeopardize your metabolic rate too much, or if you cause too much stress with fasting, then you’ll end up harming your health by making yourself more predisposed to metabolic issues. Fasting may not be always good for you and sometimes it’d be better to be more anabolic i.e. eat more frequently and consume higher calories. As long as you use it to promote quality muscle growth, you’ll be improving your health. That’s why you should change up your fasting window every once in a while, by either extending your eating window a few hours, or going for a longer 3-5 day fast, and then refeeding. The idea is to cycle fasting as you do with your overall nutrition.

Additional Fasting Mistakes to Avoid:

• Don’t Become Dependent of Coffee – Caffeine is an amazing appetite suppressant that helps to continue fasting. At the same time, it can turn into a powerful drug. Don’t drink any more than 1-3 cups a day and periodically cycle off from it.
• Don’t Get Dehydrated – Although short dry fasting is beneficial, there’s the danger of not hydrating properly afterwards. Just drinking water may not be enough, which is why you should eat plenty of vegetables and occasional fruit to hydrate the cells better.
• Don’t Neglect the Electrolytes – Insufficient sodium, potassium, and magnesium may not only cause cramping but will also raise cortisol. In fact, not getting enough salt can raise insulin and keep you in fight or flight mode. Use a bit of minerals in your water but also season the food properly.
• Don’t Bring in Additional Stressors – Make sure your life doesn’t get in the way of fasting. Get enough sleep, practice meditation, don’t over-work yourself, have downtime, do something fun, spend time with family, and don’t combine long fasts with a lot of caloric restriction and exercise.
• Don’t Freeze to Death – During fasting, you may feel slightly colder than normal. This is because of limited calories and lower heat production. If your fingers and toes are getting numb or blue, then you should stop and cover yourself up. Dress warmly and don’t push yourself too hard.
• Don’t Fast for Too Long Too Often – Be mindful of how well you can handle fasting. Start off with daily time-restricted feeding. Then have a 24-hour fast, then a 48-hour one, and then a 3-day fast. Some signs of too much fasting are constant headaches, fatigue, feeling like being hit with a club, not sleeping well, shivering and feeling very cold despite wearing a lot of clothes.
• Don’t Be Afraid of Hunger – Most people have manic fear of going hungry. It’s more psychological than physical. Fasting can actually help you to reconceptualize hunger and associate it with more vigor and success.
• Don’t Make It a Big Deal – If you think that you may potentially damage yourself, then you probably will, because of creating a stress response with your mind. Choose to see it as something that empowers not harms you and you’ll start to feel amazing.
• Don’t Gorge After Fasting – It doesn’t matter how long you fast if you jeopardize it all by eating excessive amounts of calories and still gaining weight. Moderation is key, especially in fasting and eating.

Chapter Twenty-One: Circadian Rhythms and Autophagy

Franz Halberg (1959):

The term “circadian” was derived from circa (about) and dies (day); it may serve to imply that certain physiologic periods are close to 24 hours, if not exactly that length. Herein, “circadian” might be applied to all “24-hour” rhythms, whether or not their periods, individually or on the average, are different from 24 hours, longer or shorter, by a few minutes or hours.

In 1977, the International Committee on Nomenclature of the International Society for Chronobiology adopted the official definition for circadian rhythms, which goes like this:

Circadian: relating to biologic variations or rhythms with a frequency of 1 cycle in 24 ± 4-h; circa (about, approximately) and dies (day or 24 h). Note: term describes rhythms with an about 24-h cycle length, whether they are frequency-synchronized with (acceptable) or are desynchronized or free-running from the local environmental time scale, with periods of slightly yet consistently different from 24 hours.

Circadian rhythms enable living organisms to prepare for and adapt to environmental changes that happen on a regular basis. For instance, the coming winter, nighttime, seasonality of certain food sources, faunal mobility, and fluctuations in climate.

Circadian Rhythm Basics

Circadian rhythms are biological rhythms inside your body that are connected with the day and night cycles of the environment. Humans are diurnal creatures, which means we’re active during the daytime and sleep at night.

With these circadian patterns come distinctive physiological processes that have evolved over the course of eons. They’re evolutionary adaptations of creatures living in a certain way that promoted their survival and evolution.

As hunter-gatherers, some people were more suitable for guarding the camp when others were sleeping etc. However, that difference is very small and differs maybe like a few hours. Humans are still evolved to be diurnal and when the sun’s out we better be sleeping.

There is no one whose natural circadian rhythm would be to be awake after midnight and sleep until noon. Those things are the result of living in a modern world with different type of circadian disruptors and lifestyle factors. Shift work, playing video games until the morning, and partying under fluorescent light is unnatural and one of the worst things for your health.

Early research in humans speculated that most people’s circadian rhythm is closer to 25 hours when isolated from external cues. However, these results were misleading because the participants weren’t shielded from artificial light. In 1999, a Harvard study found that the human circadian rhythm is about 24 hours and 11 minutes, which is closer to the solar day.

What Affects Circadian Rhythms?

There are 3 main signaling factors that affect the circadian rhythms – light, movement, and food. Most of the circadian signaling is transmitted through your eyes. When light enters the retinas and gets transmitted into the brain it stimulates the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The SCN is the master circadian clock in your body that regulates all the other biological rhythms and clocks. There are many different types of clocks and it’s thought that most organs like the liver, heart, and pancreas actually have their own circadian clock. That’s why all these different factors like sunlight, physical exercise, and eating affect the entire circadian rhythm of your body.

Blue light is part of the natural environment and can be seen almost everywhere. The reason why the sky is blue is actually that the blue light coming from the Sun collides with the air molecules and makes the blue light scatter everywhere.

Blue light exposure to the eyes plays a very important role in regulating your circadian rhythms and day and night cycles. It has antibacterial properties, boosts wakefulness, increases alertness, and can adjust the circadian clock. Too much blue light at the wrong time can damage your mitochondria, promote insulin resistance, cause insomnia, depression, and increase inflammation.

Blue light has a short wavelength of 380-500 nM, which makes it produce higher amounts of energy. Naturally, you wouldn’t get exposed to much blue light aside from the early to afternoon parts of the day.

Blue light exposure at night and circadian mismatches are linked to many types of cancer, diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and Alzheimer’s.

Melatonin is the sleep hormone and a powerful antioxidant that helps to conduct many repair processes in the brain and body. If you inhibit melatonin secretion because of blue light at night, then you’re going to lower growth hormone, which makes it more difficult for you to burn fat and build muscle, and you’ll also prevent the brain from clearing out the toxins that get accumulated there during the day.

However, not all blue light is bad. The timing of when you get exposed to it matters a whole lot more, which is why you’d have to entrain yourself to follow a proper circadian rhythm.

• Expose yourself to the natural sunlight first thing in the morning. This will synchronize your biological clock to the surrounding environments and maintains consistency.
• If you live in an area where you don’t get much sunlight or if it’s cloudy, then use blue light emitting devices such as the Human Charger or face lamps for 10-15 minutes.
• On days with clear sunlight try to spend more time outside by going for a long walk. This will raise vitamin D levels and charges up the mitochondria as well. The majority of circadian signaling happens through the eyes so try to expose them to the daylight.
• Don’t look directly at the sun but gaze the entire blue sky. Don’t wear sunglasses or hats that cover your vision either because you’ll miss out on the blue light.
• When indoors, wear long sleeve clothes to protect your skin from too much blue light exposure. A lot of the circadian signaling also happens through the skin, which is why you don’t want to sit under fluorescent lights before bed.
• Wear blue blocking glasses in the evening. I’m using different blue blockers. The most effective ones are the Truedark ones that literally cover your entire eyes and make you look like Vin Diesel from the movie Riddick but there are less scary ones like BluBlox that actually look stylish and something you could wear in public.
• Install a software called F.lux or Iris on your computer to automatically match the brightness of the screen with the circadian rhythms. On Android, it’s called Twilight.
• Sleep in pitch black darkness with blackout blinds and a sleeping mask that covers your eyes.
• Make sure there are no hidden sources of blue or green light in your house like the alarm clock, night lamps, red dots on the TV screen, smoke detector lights and so on.

Food Intake and Circadian Rhythms

In most animals, feeding is confined to a certain time period, which leaves a short period of fasting that coincides with sleep.

An average person in the Western world tends to spend most of the day in a fed state, leaving no time for the body to heal itself. Some people can even eat right before going to bed, sleep for about 7-8 hours, and start eating immediately after waking up. This prevents them from ever entering into fasted conditions that are so vital for longevity.

Cortisol, the stress hormone, is also highest in the morning. It starts rising at about 5-7 AM and peaks around 8 AM so that we could have the energy to get out of bed. At this point, cortisol is actually beneficial because it ignites the body’s fat oxidation mechanisms and initiates the circadian rhythm. However, as we’ve learned by now, it’s not a good idea to be eating anything with elevated cortisol. Instead, the best thing to do is to postpone it by at least a few hours.

During daytime, insulin production by the pancreas is much better than at night. Blood sugar control is also best during the earlier parts of the day and worse in the evening. This makes perfect circadian sense, as blue light in the evening promotes insulin resistance and weight gain. Part of the reason has to do with how the circadian clocks in all of the organs and cells switch on and off synchronously at the same time of the day.

Resistance training also makes the body more efficient with the food you consume. The best time for heavy physical exercise like lifting weights according to the circadian rhythm is in the afternoon around 4-6 PM. That’s when your coordination and strength tend to peak. Having a workout and then eating afterwards should have no significant negative side-effect on your long-term health or body composition.

There are different things that can offset the food circadian rhythm without having to break the fast. Drinking water and things like coffee also stimulate certain metabolic processes in the liver which can then set off the liver’s circadian rhythm. You don’t need to be eating a lot of calories to trigger the circadian processes or to affect it. The same is with light – even just a tiny bit of blue light at night time can already suppress melatonin production and inhibit your sleep quality. Autophagy as well – even just a small number of calories will break autophagy and start the feeding cycle.

Fasting can only have a negative impact on circadian rhythms and your health if it’s going to disrupt your sleep. If you eat too much food too close to bedtime, then your gut is going to have to spend extra energy on digestion. This can make you sleep worse, preventing your brain from going into deeper stages of sleep. During the night, the body would naturally start to cool itself down as to preserve energy and go into repair mode. However, eating and digesting food raises your core temperature, which takes away energy from the repair processes. It can also cause bloating, constipation, weight gain, and other digestive issues because in order to break down food and digest it, you need to produce a lot of stomach acid and enzymes.

If you eat a ton of food and then lay on your back for the coming night, then you may get acid reflux, you may stop producing hydrochloric acid, which may stop all digestive processes as well. While you’re sleeping, the food will then start to sit there and you’ll only start digesting it when you wake up the next morning. This will make you feel like you’re in a food coma because (1) you didn’t get enough deep sleep, (2) you’re still digesting the food from the night before, and (3) certain foods may have begun to ferment in the small intestine, especially fructose and carbohydrates, because they got stuck there for the entire night, which then can cause leaky gut and brain fog.

Walking is one of the best ways of lowering your post-prandial blood sugar, promoting digestion, increasing nutrient absorption, and helping with gastric emptying. I recommend going for a slow and steady walk for 10-15 minutes after dinner as to speed up digestive processes. This shouldn’t be a type-A speed-walking stroll or anything hyped up. If you push it too much, you’ll trigger the sympathetic nervous system, which will actually shut down digestion again.

To make sure you’re not causing any mismatch with your chronobiology, you’d want to ensure you have the other circadian signaling factors on point:

• Expose yourself to natural daylight in the morning for at least 5-10 minutes. That’s going to offset the right processes via the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the brain. You’ll sleep better at night, you’ll have a better mood, and you’ll start the metabolism as well to a certain extent.
• After waking up get moving – Do some mobility exercises, go for a walk, shake yourself, rebounding, and do breathing exercises. Movement is also a powerful circadian cue.
• During the day, restrict your caffeine intake. The half-life of caffeine is 4-6 hours, which means that if you drink coffee at noon, 50% of it will still be in your system at 5 PM. That’s why the last time you can safely ingest caffeine is 1-2 PM. After that, you may decrease your sleep quality.
  • Also, I would actually recommend everyone to postpone their coffee intake all the way until noon because you shouldn’t need caffeine to wake yourself up in the morning.
  • When you wake up, you should feel energized and alert because of cortisol. At least that’s supposed to happen if you have proper circadian rhythms.
  • Taking coffee will only mask the symptoms of fatigue which cover much more deeper issues related to sleep and circadian rhythms. As I said, coffee is also a circadian signaler that offsets the liver’s circadian clock. So, I’d say it’s a good idea to postpone your first cup of coffee a few hours after waking up as to allow your digestion to rest and induce deeper cellular autophagy. Coffee stimulates autophagy to a certain extent but only in small amounts and not all the time. That’s why the mid-noon small coffee break can be a good way to promote autophagy as well as give some energy until the evening.
• Other circadian rhythm factors related to eating have to do with the type of food you eat as well. Some nutrients like tryptophan and serotonin can actually make you sleep better and promote relaxation. Both carbohydrates and protein specifically have these nutrients and they’re great for dinner. Getting some protein before going to bed can also be good for providing enough amino acids for your muscles and neurotransmitters.

In conclusion, light is more important of a circadian signaler than food but you definitely don’t want to eat a lot of food right before going to bed. The optimal time frame to stop eating for the night is 2-4 hours. Having food right in the morning isn’t ideal either and you’d like to postpone your fast by at least a few hours after waking up. It doesn’t matter what kind of a fasting window you follow as long as you avoid eating immediately after opening your eyes, having dinner too late, and snacking all the way up to going to bed.

Chapter Twenty-Two: Sleep Optimization

All muscle growth happens during rest. Training is catabolic, which causes tissue tearing. As a result, the hypertrophic response will be augmented during anabolism – when we eat and sleep.

Lack of sleep can increase our risk of heart disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative disease, and obesity. It will also cause insulin resistance, mood swings, low testosterone, and fatigue, both physical and mental.

Human growth hormone actually gets released during the first hours of our sleep, which is incredibly important for building tissue and maintaining leanness. That 2000% boost everyone’s talking about starts at 11 PM and lasts until about 2 AM, during which the body conducts its physical repair. Missing out on this makes you gain weight and lose strength.

Sleep deprivation releases cortisol, which is the catabolic stress hormone. This will promote tissue breakdown and the accumulation of fat. That’s why stressed-out people tend to struggle with weight loss – chronically elevated levels of cortisol from not sleeping enough, over-caffeinating, long working hours, and emotional turmoil. It’s one of the biggest things that accelerates aging and wrinkled skin.

There are 2 main types of sleep with characteristic brain wave patterns and activities:

• Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep is anything that is not REM or rapid-eye-movement sleep. It consists of 3 separate stages.
  • The first is NREM1 between drowsy wakefulness and sleep, in which your muscles are still quite active, you’re rolling around in bed and you may occasionally open your eyes.
• In NREM2 your muscle activity keeps decreasing and you start to slowly fade away into sleep.
• Stage 3 NREM3 (previously 3 and 4) is the deep or slow-wave sleep (SWS) characterized by delta brain waves of 0.5-4 Hz. In here, you are cut off from the conscious world around you and irresponsive to most sounds or other stimuli.
• Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep is a phase characterized by random movement of the eyes, low muscle tone and the possibility of lucid dreaming. It allows us to learn complex tasks and motor skills. This is where the magic happens.

One cycle of REM usually takes about 70-90 minutes depending on the length of overall NREM sleep and comprises 20-25% of total night’s volume. Light NREM1-2 takes about 50-60% and deep sleep NREM3 comprises up to 10-25%.

Physically, the most restorative stages are deep sleep and REM, which is why they should be prioritized much more. However, consistently over 25% of REM sleep may cause hyper brain activity, mood disorders and other neurological issues.

The optimal length of sleep varies between people and it’s determined by genetics, lifestyle factors, circadian rhythms, and how much physical repair is needed. It’s recommended that children should get about 10-12 hours a day and adults 7-9. Too much sleep, however, can also have negative side-effects, such as insomnia, restlessness, epilepsy, obesity, and other medical conditions.

Recovery takes place only in the deepest stages which we can enter after about 90 minutes. Sleeping more won’t increase our performance. Doing it smarter will. Here’s how:

• Adjust to the Circadian Rhythm – The most productive hours of sleep are in the early parts of the night. As you recall, growth hormone starts rising at 11 PM and reaches its peak at 2 AM. That’s when melatonin should increase as well. Cortisol would also naturally start rising early in the morning between 5-8 AM. For optimal circadian rhythms, you’d want to stick to that as much as possible. This means:
  • get up early at about 6-8 AM
  • go to bed between 9 and 11 PM
• Establish a Daily Sleep Routine – Follow a series of habitual activities prior going to bed letting your unconscious self know that it’s time to go to sleep. This will include certain activities both physical and mental. It can be anything, such as reading, brushing your teeth, stretching or whatever. Just make it a habit so that your mind knows it’s time to rest. If you can’t make it to bed at the optimal hours, then you should at least focus on sticking to a consistent bedtime and waking up schedule because it’s critical for maintaining consistency with your circadian rhythm.
• Sleep in Pitch Black Darkness – Blue light in the evening is brutal for disrupting the circadian rhythms and interfering with melatonin production. That’s why a pair of quality blue blocking glasses is essential but you also want to use blackout curtains and wear a sleeping mask.
• Change Your Lightbulbs – The UV light from ordinary lightbulbs emanates blue light. Changing to amber lights will fix that by reducing the spectrum to more red which at night resembles the sunset.
• Use a program on your computer called F.lux which changes the bright color of the screen to orange and relaxing.
• Use an Acupuncture Mattress – Get a small bedding that has little spikes on top of it. This is relatively cheap yet very effective. You can lay down before going to bed for 15 minutes or sleep on it throughout the night. I have used both options. At first, it feels like a lot of thorns are trying to penetrate your skin. After a while, the body relaxes and it becomes incredibly soothing.
• Sleep in a Cool Environment – The perfect temperature is 20 degrees Celsius (65 Fahrenheit). Turn down the heating and cover yourself with only the bed sheets. Extra fluffy blankets are actually counterproductive.
• Turn Off All Electronics in Your Room – Not only are they a possible source of blue light sneaking in but they also radiate Electro Magnetic Frequencies (EMF) which not only decrease testosterone production but also have a negative impact on our overall health including sleep. Turn off your router for the night and keep your phone on airplane mode most of the time.
• Create White Noise in Your Room – Whether that would be from an audio player switched to airplane mode or something less technical. I would suggest using a simple fan. Not only will the ventilation keep the air moving and cooling the temperature but the noise will contribute to the production of alpha waves while we are sleeping. White noise promotes a meditative state which will allow us to enter the deepest stages of recovery more easily.
• Dehydrate a Few Hours Prior to Bedtime – If you have to constantly wake up to go to the bathroom at night then it’s going to interfere with getting into deep sleep. After dinner don’t consume any form of liquid as it will inevitably have to come out.
• Binaural Beats – While awake our brain is producing mainly beta waves which is an alert state of consciousness that promotes stress and anxiety. To enter deeper stages, we have to drop lower into alpha waves. During the day it can happen while we’re daydreaming or meditating. Binaural beats can help us to go from beta to alpha and then progress further into theta and delta, which resembles the natural progression of a healthy cycle.
• Essential Oils that emanate different aromas can be used around your bed that will improve the quality of our sleep. For instance, rose oil inhibits sympathetic nervous system activity and decreases adrenaline. Additionally, lavender enhances deep sleep, lowers our stress, blood pressure, heart rate, skin temperature, and cortisol levels. Their soothing smells will prime our body and mind for relaxation and augmentation.

To make yourself sleep better, have a nice ketogenic dinner with some good protein and fat, such as butter or coconut oil. However, don’t eat too much protein, as it can spike your insulin. This will increase blood glucose and keeps you up at night. Keep it moderate. Carbohydrates can also promote sleep by promoting serotonin production. On carb refeeds, the spike in insulin and following crash will actually make you sleep better. Best options for that are sweet potatoes and rice.

There are many ways of knowing whether or not you’ve actually recovered from the stress of daily life and exercise.

• Measuring your heart rate variability is a great way to know the state of your nervous system – are you more sympathetic or parasympathetic dominant. There are many chest traps and devices out there that you can use to measure this. 
• Looking at your physical strength and balance will also indicate the state of your nervous system. If you’re weaker than you were before then you haven’t recovered and it would be better to have an easier recovery style workout before hitting it hard again. If you struggle to maintain balance or suffer from brain fog, then you’re also under-recovered. It takes about 48-72 hours for your muscles to recover and grow but your nervous system can take up to 5-7 days, so you have to be very careful with how intense exercise you do.
• I can tell you this simple 1-minute exercise that can give you some idea about the state of your nervous system. You time yourself for 20 seconds and during that time you tap your finger on the table as fast as you can. You get a score which should tell you how recovered you are. Keep in mind that you have to do this over a longer period to establish a baseline of where you’re currently at and you have to do it at the same time of day as well because your readiness will fluctuate between the morning and evening.
• Tracking your mood and overall sense of well-being in a simple journal are the easiest ways of doing this. You score yourself on a scale of 1-10. 10 being “I can run through a wall with no problems and I’m super-motivated”. And 1 would be that “you’re hospitalized in a bed”. Lack of motivation can also mean you’re still tired from your previous workout. Of course, there’s a difference between just being lazy and actually having adrenal fatigue but you have to test and experiment, keep track of your numbers and then develop this intuitive knowledge about your body.

Bonus Chapter: How to Drink Coffee Like a Strategic MotherF#%a

Long-term consumption of caffeine in the form of coffee is associated with cognitive enhancements, reduced risk for type-2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s.

Caffeine travels to the brain and blocks a neurotransmitter called adenosine. As a result, norepinephrine and dopamine actually increase, which hastens the firing rate of neurons.

Coffee beans have a lot of antioxidants, called quinines, that fight disease and clean the body. After the roasting process, they become even more potent. They also contain naturally a lot of magnesium.

For the wide majority of people, it’s safe. However, additional side-effects can be insomnia, upset stomach, increased heart rate, and blood pressure. In my opinion, caffeine should be used only in certain situations when you actually need a boost. It’s just that – a performance-enhancing stimulant that gives us the right amount of energy for whatever the task might be.

Between the hours of 8-9 AM, our cortisol levels are at their peak. It’s the fight or flight hormone, that rises in the morning so we’d have increased alertness and focus. We’re already supposed to be fully alert and energized after waking up. So, if we simultaneously drink coffee, we’re wasting the potential benefits of caffeine and offsetting the circadian rhythm.

The best time to drink coffee is between 9:30 AM and 11:30 AM. Cortisol peaks in the early morning, but also fluctuates during the day. Other times it rises are 12 PM – 1 PM and 5:30 PM and 6:30 PM, so avoid coffee at those hours as well.

The half-life of caffeine is about 5.7 hours, which means that if you drink coffee at 12 PM, then 50% of it will still be in your system at 6PM. According to the circadian rhythm, the best time to go to bed is at about 9-11 PM. You should be sound asleep before midnight because that’s when the most growth hormone gets released. Ingesting caffeine in the evening will definitely keep you up at night. That’s why you should stop drinking coffee after 2-4 PM in the afternoon.

Our metabolism differs between individuals and we have our own unique type, which makes us metabolize nutrients at different speeds.

• The fast oxidizer is someone who digests food very quickly and converts it into energy rapidly. They need to focus on eating heavier meals with more fat and protein that would keep them satiated. By the same token, they will also absorb caffeine that much faster and it will go through their system almost at an instant.
• If you’re a slow oxidizer, then you need more time to convert food into energy. Because of that, you require more carbohydrates, rather than protein and fat. Getting the benefits of coffee will also be less rapid.

Doses of 600 mg are often comparable to the effects of modafinil, which is a top-notch nootropic and cognitive enhancer. It’s a smart drug but there are no reported advantages over large amounts of caffeine. To avoid any unwanted side-effects, use filtered coffee. Darker roasts have less caffeine in them, due to the roasting process.

It may increase our attention span, the speed at which we work, prevent us from getting sidetracked, and may even benefit recall, but it’s less likely to improve more complex cognitive functions. Like with modafinil, you only get better at what you’re already good at. You can’t expand upon your existing cognitive limitations. The actual benefit you get is just more energy and alertness. In fact, it may actually harm tasks of higher executive functioning, such as creativity or problem solving, because large doses of caffeine may cause shivers and too much excitement.

Use caffeine to rush through the repetitive activities that require a lot of micro-management and aren’t too difficult.

Once you take your first zip of the day, you can immediately feel your energy levels rising. This happens because your body will release more adrenaline and dopamine. What ensues is lipolysis, which is the conversion of stored body fat into energy. However, the increased use of free fatty acids is reported to happen only in low carb/high fat diets. Caffeine may be less useful on a high carb diet.

At the same time, coffee will still increase your metabolic rate and has other physical performance-enhancing effects. Caffeine has a positive impact on muscular contraction and fatigue, which makes it a great tool for training.

When it comes to performance, then drinking a larger dose of caffeine 15-30 minutes earlier will yield some great results. Sipping on some beverage intra-workout is also viable. Even more, post-workout caffeine can also help to refuel muscles and increase fat burning.

Consuming it daily will increase our body’s tolerance to it, which eventually leads to the receptors in our brain to becoming resistant to coffee. After some time, it stops working and we need a lot more to get the same effect.

• To prevent that from happening, you have to habitually cycle off caffeine. For at least 1 week of the month, you should allow your body’s receptors to reset and become sensitive again. Another option would be to drink coffee only on days where you most need it, say during a hard workout or while doing repetitive tasks. This doesn’t mean you can’t drink coffee every day. Simply swap out the caffeinated version with decaf. The taste is the same and you can get almost all of the benefits. If not the increased energy, then at least you’ll still use it as an antioxidant and a mood enhancer.

There are some benefits to consuming caffeine with glucose, which may improve cognition not seen with either alone. Additionally, grapefruit juice can keep caffeine levels in the bloodstream for longer.

• If you’re a fast oxidizer, then adding sugar will only hasten your downfall. You may get an immediate boost, but that short high will be followed by a steep low. To not crash and burn, you can add fat to the mix.
• Adding butter to your cup of joe will definitely have some positive effects. It decreases the rate of absorption, gives you long-lasting energy, keeps you satiated for hours and tastes incredible.
• Coffee itself boosts autophagy in some amounts but not if you over-do it or add too many other ingredients. The only thing allowed would be medicinal mushroom powders like chaga, reishi, or lion’s mane but not over 1 tsp. If you have some adrenal issues or experience too much cortisol in the morning, then it’s not recommended to drink coffee because it may simply overshoot the stress hormones. To not become even more stressed out and catabolic you should have some tea instead.